China International Studies (English)
International Responsibility and Chinese Diplomacy
China’s concept of international responsibility in different times, as a guide to action, has led to Chinese diplomacy with characteristics of different historical periods. Handling international affairs with a strong sense of responsibility, China has taken the initiative to assume its international duties while keeping the dynamic balance between national and global interests.
For any country, showing responsibility in international affairs is not only an important source of its legitimacy among global society, but also a crucial factor for its own development. In over 70 years since the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), China has shouldered its due share of international responsibility as a significant element of its diplomatic practice, thus demonstrating its distinctive characteristics in building foreign relations.
Connotations and Characteristics of International Responsibility
Responsibility, seen as a duty and obligation to a cause, often entails two meanings: positively it involves taking deliberate action to do what is necessary; negatively it implies being forced to bear the consequences of failure to observe one’s commitment. International responsibility points to one’s proper obligation in the global arena. In this article, international responsibility is referred to only in its positive connotation, which includes the following four components.
The first is the subjects of responsibility, those who are going to take up some form of responsibility. Subjects of international responsibility consist of all kinds of international actors, which include - apart from sovereign states - international organizations, multinational corporations, non-governmental organizations (NGOS) and even individuals at the international level. In this article, the subjects
of responsibility refer only to nation states, with a particular focus on China, which is perceived as a unitary actor represented by its central government.
The second part is the objects of responsibility, meaning those for whom responsibility is assumed. The objects of international responsibility may be universal or specific, with the former indicating mankind or the entire international society, and the latter detailing particular groups or individuals within global society. In fact, under most circumstances, when taking responsibility for all human beings and the whole international community, an international actor also fulfills a commitment to one or some particular individuals or groups. There are two reasons for this. On the one hand, international society is a complex and diversified composition, consisting of numerous actors which form different groups based on objective criteria or subjective judgment. With different viewpoints, such groups often engage in competition or even come into conflict and confrontation with each other. This sense of identity naturally propels actors to affiliate themselves primarily with and assume a stronger sense of responsibility for the groups they belong to. On the other hand, under the international system of sovereign states, pursuing national interests is always the most reasonable and legitimate course of action for countries. Although all countries should fulfill their required universal international responsibilities, due to constraints in national strength, status and capacity, and the influence of their national identity, they often prioritize particular responsibilities out of their concern about national interests. Of course, universal and particular international responsibilities do not contradict but complement each other, since the former serves as the basis and ultimate goal of the latter.
The third component is the content of responsibility, that is, what kind of responsibilities should be taken. International responsibility is a multi-dimensional concept covering legal, political and ethical aspects. The minimum standard of such responsibility is fulfilling one’s international legal obligations, since abiding by international law is the precondition for countries to be recognized as sovereign states. Political responsibility refers to the obligation a country has as a member of specific international
organizations and institutions, or as the follower of certain international rules and norms. Shouldering its due political responsibility will endow a country with more international political rights. Higher merits in terms of moral responsibility reflects a country’s moral standing in the international arena and brings about an obligation to safeguard the interests of the majority of people and groups in the world, and even those of mankind in its entirety. Moral responsibility manifests itself as a sense of international justice and will earn a country an enhanced international reputation. International responsibility is also reflected in diverse areas, such as security, economic, and environmental responsibilities, etc.
The fourth part is the ways and means of taking responsibility, in other words, how to fulfill one’s responsibility. There are multiple ways of carrying out international responsibility, since people with different political beliefs and standpoints have diverse approaches and conceptions of the way in which responsibilities can be met. The realists, who advocate the use of power, believe that responsibility could only be taken by an increase of strength and a show of force. Liberals honor institutions and contend that modes of taking responsibility can be created by establishing equivalent international institutions. With an emphasis on ideas and identity, constructivists advocate that one’s sense of responsibility could be enhanced by changing perceptions and promoting identities, so that responsibility would be internalized and reaffirmed in positive actions. In addition, while hardliners insist on enforcing responsibility by using military force or resorting to coercive regulatory methods, moderates believe responsibility could be realized by institutional constraints, persuasion and moral influence. Of course, different means of responsibility-taking are also prioritized in different areas. For instance, economic responsibilities are usually honored through cooperation and provision of aid. Traditional security responsibilities are often carried out by the formation of alliances, balance of power and regulation, whereas non-traditional ones rely more on cooperation and governance. In terms of diplomatic strategy, international responsibilities may be achieved through multilateral, bilateral and even unilateral approaches.
To summarize, international responsibility means that international actors take the initiative to perform tasks that are needed to safeguard the universal interests of the global community and/or the particular interests of one or several specific groups. International responsibility encompasses different subjects, objects, connotations and methods of enforcement. To better understand this concept, we need to generalize its basic characteristics.
First, defining one’s international responsibility requires a combination of self-identity and external perceptions. Responsibilities may be fulfilled only when they are embraced and internalized. Such self-defined international responsibilities, however, are often swayed by external actors’ perceptions or even framed as responses to the outside world. For instance, with the rise of China, its capacity and sense of responsibility have both increased. Those voices calling on China to shoulder more responsibilities in the international arena are getting stronger and give rise to various rhetoric of “China responsibility”. Although the perception of China’s international responsibility by outside forces often contains a number of suspicions and concerns about China’s rise, they also involve various reasonable expectations as well. Under such circumstances, China’s definition of its own responsibility is inevitably affected by external perceptions, hence a balance should be sought between its self-defined responsibilities and those perceived by the outside world.
Second, taking international responsibility has to be based on the harmonization of one’s international contribution and its national interests. For any country, pursuing national interests is the starting point and ultimate goal of its behavior. Taking proper international responsibilities, however, will help a country better obtain and safeguard its national interests. To receive international recognition, a country first and foremost has to shoulder its legal responsibility as well as appropriate political responsibility to acquire more political rights. Both legal and political obligations come with corresponding rights. Taking responsibility for moral values is conducive to raising a country’s international prestige, which eventually also helps enhance its national interests. In fact, an effective coordination of national interests and international responsibilities has positive significance for countries and the international community.
Third, the fulfillment of international responsibilities requires the coordination of subjective conscientiousness and objective demand. As a conscientious initiative, responsibility is a duty that is self-perceived and enforced voluntarily on the basis of one’s own beliefs. As an objective requirement, responsibility is imposed by the outside world through laws, rules or ethical opinions. As responsibilities exist within relations, there emerges an objective demand for laws and regulations that define these responsibilities and the moral restraints accompanying them. International law, though far from perfect, has established the most fundamental and most comprehensive set of international responsibilities, which restrain and regulate state behavior according to objective requirements. Meanwhile, the basis of all harmonious relations is morality. As the bearer of morality, responsibility plays a decisive role in building harmonious relations. What needs to be emphasized is that the self-perception of responsibility is usually supported by external demand, while the requirements from others have to be internalized as conscientious beliefs in order to be better fulfilled Fourth, the connotation of international responsibilities can be recognized most of all by the balance between stability and flexibility. On the one hand, all countries have to fulfill their universal international obligations at any time under any circumstances, meaning that there is a stable baseline of responsibility. On the other hand, a country’s concrete and particular responsibilities are constantly shifting, depending on how they are affected by its power status, national identity, international role and national interests. More importantly, since responsibility lies in the dynamic interactions between its subjects and objects, its meaning differs corresponding to the changes in such interactions. Therefore, the connotations of responsibility are both stable and flexible, demonstrating their balance.
History of China’s Diplomacy from the Perspective of International Responsibility
Since the PRC was founded in 1949, shouldering corresponding international
responsibilities have always been an important element in China’s diplomacy, and different outlooks for its international responsibility have been formulated at various stages. The concept of international responsibility stems from a comprehensive judgment and understanding of the objects and content of responsibility as well as the ways and means of taking it. It is mainly influenced by factors such as the theme of the times, the international landscape and the positioning of the countries themselves. Actions are guided by ideas. China’s concept of international responsibility in different times has also led to Chinese diplomacy with characteristics of different historical periods. China’s diplomacy can be divided into three stages: the diplomacy of struggle under the internationalist concept of responsibility, cooperative diplomacy under the new internationalist concept of responsibility, and major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics under the concept of responsibility for a community with a shared future for mankind.
Diplomacy of struggle under the internationalist concept of responsibility
The establishment of the PRC marked the victory of China’s New Democratic Revolution, and China began to enter a period of socialist revolution and development. It was the willful choice of the Chinese people to adhere to the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics. As a Marxist political party, the CPC believed that proletariats “can liberate themselves only by liberating all humanity,” which prompted it to adhere to the important Marxist principle of proletarian internationalism. According to Mao Zedong, the founder of the PRC, socialism is consistent with internationalism and cosmopolitanism. He believed that “this cosmopolitanism promotes the principle that all people are compatriots and pursues the common good of socialism. Socialism should be international and should not be patriotic.”1 The PRC, following the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics,
thus became an active promoter of internationalism in its foreign relations. According to Lenin, “The only real internationalism is to work selflessly to develop the country’s revolutionary movements and struggle, and to support such struggle and path of all countries without exception (through publicity, moral and material support).”2 To carry forward internationalism, Lenin continued, “We should not only think about our nation, but also prioritize the interests, the universal freedom and equality of all nations over our nation.”3 “Our internationalism,” according to Mao, is “an internationalism against narrow nationalism and narrow patriotism.”4 Guided by such internationalism, despite various difficulties and challenges, the PRC, which had just achieved national independence, actively undertook international responsibilities for those countries and peoples who similarly strived for national liberation. The Chinese government repeatedly stressed that “we should not ignore other countries after achieving our independence,”5 and that “China, while managing to obtain victory (in national independence), is obliged to support those countries that are winning and will win (national independence).”6
As China’s revolution formed a part of the world’s revolutionary struggle, China’s major diplomatic strategy was to curb wars through revolution, and it became China’s main international responsibility to support the global proletarian socialist revolution and the wars of independence and liberation by oppressed nations. Since China’s national liberation was first supported by socialist countries, and “aside from socialist countries, we are also aided by the vast struggle against colonialism and imperialism among the people of Asia, Africa and Latin America,” we were obliged to support “the countries and people who have helped China, and we support and help each other.”7 “It is the obligation of all socialist countries, the international workers’
movement and communist movements to provide moral and material support for the people who struggle to escape the oppression of imperialism and colonialism.”8 “Socialist countries should regard it as their internationalist responsibility to support the revolutions and struggle of the peoples in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.”9 Mao Zedong urged all oppressed countries and people: “Expel whoever arrogantly disobeys your laws and engages in seditious activities.”10 China and the oppressed countries “are friends” and “are on the same front against imperialism and colonialism.”11 Besides common struggles, cooperation is the other indispensable component for maintaining world peace. For this reason, Mao Zedong argued that “you need two legs to walk”. The first leg is “the anti-colonialist, anti-imperialist struggle of the peoples in Asia, Africa and Latin America”. The second leg is to hold a conference where major powers can negotiate. “Walking with two legs, we make it hard for world wars to break out.”12
After its establishment, the PRC “has adhered to proletarian internationalism, developed friendship with the people of all countries, supported and aided the liberation of oppressed nations, the development of newly independent states and the just struggle of people of all countries, resolutely opposed imperialism, hegemonism, colonization and racism, and maintained world peace.”13 Guided by the concept of responsibility under proletarian internationalism, the PRC vigorously assisted the revolutions in Korea, Vietnam and other countries in Southeast Asia and fought side by side with the people of these countries against imperialism, hegemonism and colonialism. Meanwhile, China also proposed the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and the guideline of “seeking common ground while reserving differences” to pursue inter-state peace. It also willingly provided economic
assistance to backward countries and regions. The Tanzania-zambia Railway, which China built to support the newly independent African countries, has not only strengthened the Sino-african friendship but has also greatly encouraged the national independence and liberation of African countries.
Diplomacy of cooperation under the new internationalist view on responsibility
In 1978, the third plenary session of the 11th CPC Central Committee decided to implement reform and opening-up, which started a new chapter in Chinese history. As the chief architect of reform and opening-up, Deng Xiaoping stated: “We are still very poor now, and we may not be able to shoulder many of the obligations of proletarian internationalism, let alone making many contributions. We may be able to contribute more to humanity, especially to the Third World, when our economy is developed through the realization of Four Modernizations.”14 “Our performance in domestic affairs is fundamental to fulfilling our due responsibilities in the international arena.”15 Deng Xiaoping also confidently predicted that “by the end of the 20th century, China will reach the goal of quadrupling its GDP, which means … a well-off standard of living. At that time, China will significantly contribute to world peace and the stabilization of the international situation.”16 After the process of reform and opening-up had been launched, China continued to emphasize its responsibility for proletarian internationalism. However, it kept upholding patriotism because it believed that self-development represents the prerequisite to assuming more responsibility. In this context, Deng Xiaoping declared: “We must uphold the spirit of patriotism and improve national self-respect and selfconfidence. Otherwise, we will not be able to build socialism. Rather, we may be corroded by various capitalist forces.”17
Deng Xiaoping believed that “the real big problems in the contemporary world with global strategic relevance are peace and economy, or development.”18 “The contemporary world is an open world,” and “China cannot develop in isolation from the rest of the world.”19 He stated: “There is no fundamental contradiction between socialism and market economy. The problem is how to develop productivity more effectively … In the final analysis, the superiority of socialism should be demonstrated in a greater development of productivity … That is why we have been drawing on some useful capitalist methods.”20 “We should bear in mind the whole of humanity when considering development issues. Only in this way can we be clear that the issue of development is both the responsibility of developing countries and developed countries.”21 Developing and developed countries are interconnected and dependent on each other in terms of development. “If the countries in the South are not duly developed, the countries in the North will find only very limited outlets for their capital and products; indeed, if the South remains poor, the North will find no outlets at all.”22 In the meantime, it is also true that South-south cooperation is indispensable for global development. “The developed countries are getting richer and richer while the developing countries are getting relatively poorer and poorer. If the North-south problem is not solved, it will hinder the development of the world economy. The solution, of course, lies in North-south dialogue, and we support such dialogue. But dialogue alone is not enough; cooperation among Third World countries, or South-south cooperation, should be stepped up as well.”23
Under new historical conditions, in which peace and development have become the underlying trend of the times, China has creatively formulated the concept of proletarian internationalism, assumed international responsibility
with a new internationalist attitude, emphasized peaceful coexistence and friendly cooperation with all countries, pursued the common interests of all countries in the world, and strived for joint progress and prosperity for all countries on the basis of seeking and safeguarding world peace through development. Under the guidance of this new internationalism, China has engaged in establishing and developing diplomatic, economic and cultural ties with all countries in the world, and has actively sought to apply for membership in many Western-led major international economic organizations. At the same time, in order to guarantee a favorable international environment conducive to development and cooperation, China has been continuously adhering to the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, as Deng Xiaoping has indicated that the Five Principles were the most solid foundation on which to build relationships between countries.24 In order to enhance the inclusion of developing countries into international economic cooperation and achieve common development of the world, China has actively promoted the establishment of a new international political and economic order.25
After the Cold War ended, in the face of a dramatically changed global situation, China persistently adhered to the basic strategic orientation of “concentrating on domestic affairs while making due contributions to the world” and “increasing cooperation as the way to pursue development and safeguard peace” in its diplomacy. Jiang Zemin stated that in today’s world “peace, cooperation and development have become the trend of the times.” Confronted with tremendous global challenges after the Cold War, and with the coexistence of traditional and non-traditional security threats, he advocated that all countries “seek for areas of common interests, expand win-win cooperation, and jointly meet the challenges relevant to human survival and development.”26 Hu
Jintao also stressed that “pursuit of peace, development and cooperation has become an irresistible trend of the times”27 and called on the people of all countries to “work together to build a harmonious world with lasting peace and common prosperity.”28
Major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics under the sense of responsibility for a community with a shared future for mankind
Since the 18th CPC National Congress, China has been rising to the center of the world stage, and the future of the Chinese people is more closely connected with that of the people in other parts of the world. At this new historic juncture, China is committed to being a responsible great power, following the path of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics, and actively promoting the construction of a community with a shared future for mankind. Especially since a major political judgment was made at the 19th National Congress of the CPC that socialism with Chinese characteristics had entered a new era, China has been striving to make greater contributions to mankind with a deeper understanding of its international responsibility and a greater sense of mission.
Today’s world is “where countries are linked with and dependent on one another at a level never seen before. Mankind, by living in the same global village within the same time and space where history and reality meet, have increasingly emerged as a community of common destiny in which everyone has in himself a little bit of others.”29 Therefore, actively building a community with a shared future for mankind is the new diplomatic mission and historic commitment of China, as well as the ultimate goal of majorcountry diplomacy with Chinese characteristics. Building a community
with a shared future for mankind requires us to build an open, inclusive, clean and beautiful world that enjoys durable peace, universal security, and common prosperity. This is the dream shared by the people of the world for a better future, as it is also the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation. Xi Jinping stated that “China has entered a crucial stage in achieving national rejuvenation. The relationship between China and the world has undergone profound changes. The interaction between China and the international community has also become unprecedentedly close. While China is more dependent on the world and its participation in international affairs is constantly deepening, the world is also more dependent on China and having more influence on China.”30 This situation requires us to keep in 30 “Xi Jinping’s Address to the Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs,” People’s Daily, November 30, 2014.
mind both internal and international imperatives, and align more closely the Chinese Dream of national rejuvenation with the common aspiration of the people of the world for a better future. In order to build a community with a shared future for mankind, China has further enriched and broadened the strategic discourse on peaceful development, and proposed a new type of international relations featuring mutual respect, fairness, justice, and win-win cooperation, or, in the words of Xi Jinping, “to uphold justice while pursuing shared interests.” He further elaborated on this idea by stating: “China champions a right approach to justice and interests, and it upholds good faith, friendship and justice.” “We will practice the right approach to justice and interests and expand foreign assistance, to uphold justice while promoting common interests.”31 He especially emphasized China’s responsibility for securing the interests of developing countries: “China upholds justice while pursuing shared interests and puts justice first in pursuing cooperation.” “China follows the principle of giving more and taking less, giving before taking and giving without asking for return.”32
Against the backdrop of setbacks in economic globalization and challenges to the multilateral trading system, China firmly supports and maintains multilateralism, and strives to build an open world economy, making economic globalization inclusive, balanced, based on winwin outcomes which are beneficial to all. Faced with a series of severe and complex global challenges such as climate change, transnational terrorism and cybersecurity, China has adhered to the principle of wide consultation, joint contribution and shared benefits in its participation in global governance, actively engaging in the reform and development of the global governance system, playing a significant role as a responsible actor, providing more and more public goods for the international community, and making the international order more just and rational. Xi Jinping 31 “Xi Jinping’s Address to the Central Conference on Work Relating to Foreign Affairs.”
32 Xi Jinping, “Work Together for Common Development and a Shared Future: Keynote Speech at the Opening Ceremony of the 2018 Beijing Summit of the Forum on China-africa Cooperation”, People’s Daily, September 4, 2018.
stated: “As an ancient Chinese adage goes, ‘The greatest ideal is to create a world truly shared by all.’ Peace, development, equity, justice, democracy and freedom are common values of all mankind and the lofty goals of the United Nations. Yet these goals are far from being achieved, and we must continue our endeavor to meet them. In today’s world, all countries are interdependent and share a common future. We should renew our commitment to the objectives and principles of the UN Charter, build a new type of international relations featuring win-win cooperation, and create a community with a shared future for mankind.”33
Characteristics of Chinese Diplomacy from the Perspective of International Responsibility
In the 70 years of diplomatic practices, China has always been committed to being a reliable member of the international community, seriously handling international affairs with a strong sense of responsibility, and taking the initiative to assume corresponding international responsibilities while keeping the dynamic balance between national and global interests. From the perspective of international responsibility, Chinese diplomacy is characterized by the following three features.
Caring for the well-being of the world while developing oneself
Since the day of its founding, the PRC has always regarded all mankind and the whole world as the focus of its diplomacy. China has consistently based its diplomatic efforts on its national condition and the world situation, handling its relationship with the world from a holistic perspective, and regarding national interests and international responsibilities as a mutually reinforcing unity. Soon after the founding of the PRC, Chairman Mao stated that “the world peace is always hinged on China’s sense of responsibility.”34 Since the beginning of reform and
33 Xi Jinping: The Governance of China, Vol.2, Foreign Languages Press, 2017, p.522. 34 Mao Zedong’s Anthology, Vol.8, People’s Publishing House, 1999, p.217.
opening-up, Deng Xiaoping stated that “China is now a constructive force that safeguards world peace and stability, instead of a destructive one. The more powerful China becomes, the more solid the world peace is.”35 Entering the 21st century, Jiang Zemin stated that “the CPC must courageously undertake the historic task to make socialist China develop and prosper and to make greater contributions to the cause of human progress.”36 Hu Jintao closely connected the harmonious society with the building of a harmonious world. Since the 18th CPC National Congress, the Party’s central leadership with Xi Jinping at its core has been actively promoting the building of a community with a shared future for mankind, and “continuously making greater contributions to mankind” has also become a central feature of major-country diplomacy with Chinese characteristics. It is this kind of diplomatic spirit of “developing oneself to help others with the well-being of the world in mind” that puts universal and international responsibility always at the forefront of China’s diplomacy.
Due to a rapidly evolving historical background and China’s rising strength and growing self-awareness, China has in different times formed different views on its international responsibility, and has adopted corresponding diplomatic practices. Soon after the founding of the PRC, under the guidance of the spirit of proletarian internationalism, China vigorously supported socialist countries and those nations and peoples who were fighting for liberation from imperialism, hegemonism and colonialism. Since the reform and opening-up, guided by the new internationalist view on responsibility, China has been striving to establish a new international political and economic order based on the needs of its development by opening up and participating in international economic cooperation. Since the 18th CPC National Congress, China has adhered 35 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.3, p.104.
36 Jiang Zemin, “Build a Well-off Society in an All-round Way and Create a New Situation in Building Socialism with Chinese Characteristics: Report to the 16th National Congress of the Communist Party of China,” People’s Daily, November 18, 2002.
to the concept of a community with a shared future for mankind. While keeping the identity as a developing country, it has also been transforming into a responsible major country, closely connecting China’s future with that of the world. Despite certain modifications in different time periods, the meaning of China’s international responsibility has been generally constant, which is that China’s responsibility ultimately encompasses the whole of mankind.
The origin of “developing oneself to help others with the well-being of the world in mind” is two-fold. First is the Chinese traditional culture, especially the concept of collectivism and the holistic perspective. Second is the Marxist world outlook, i.e., focusing on the entire world history and the well-being of the entire human society. The foundation for implementing this mindset is that China always sees itself as a major country. While Mao Zedong acknowledged that China was still a “poor and backward” agricultural country, he firmly believed that “China is a major country whose population accounts for a quarter of the world’s total, but its contribution to the humanity is not proportionate to its share of the global population.”37 Although Deng Xiaoping recognized that China’s economy was still lagging behind, he nevertheless emphasized that China should not belittle itself because “after all, China is a pole in the so-called multi-polar world after the Cold War.”38 After entering the 21st century, the pledge to “act as a major country” and to “make an even greater contribution to mankind” have become solemn promises made by China to the world, as China is rising as the biggest socialist country, and the Communist Party of China is the world’s largest political party.
Socialism: essential attribute of China’s diplomacy
Taking the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the selfdetermined choice of the Chinese people. The great socialist development that the PRC has achieved during its 70 years has reinforced the Chinese
37 Mao Zedong’s Anthology, Vol.7, People’s Publishing House, 1999, p.124. 38 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.3, p.353.
people’s confidence in the direction, theory, system and culture of socialism with Chinese characteristics. It is an inherent characteristic of socialism that China’s diplomacy focuses on the interests of all mankind and the majority of the international community, dedicated to safeguarding international justice and establishing a type of international relations rooted in mutual respect, fairness and justice. To this end, China has always developed relations with the rest of the world on the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, firmly supported and stood by the vulnerable groups in the international community, sided with justice and upheld fairness and righteousness. Jiang Zemin stated: “With regard to all international affairs, we should decide our position on issues based on the fundamental interests of the people of China and the world, as well as the merit of such affairs. We will not succumb to any external pressure, not ally with any major country or country groupings, not form military blocs, not engage in arms races, and not carry out military expansion.”39
To safeguard international justice, we should first and foremost maintain the world’s recognized international code of conduct and related principles in international law, and safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of all countries and people. As the most principal, representative and authoritative inter-governmental organization in the current world, the United Nations expresses the universal will and interests of the people of all countries. The UN Charter laid the foundation for modern international law, and principles it established, of sovereignty, equality and noninterference in the internal affairs of states, have become the benchmark for the international community to judge whether the actions of each country are just. China has always firmly upheld the objectives and principles of the UN Charter, respected the rights of people of all countries to choose their development paths, and opposed the imposition of one’s will on others and any interference in the internal affairs of other countries. Deng Xiaoping 39 Jiang Zemin, “Hold High the Great Banner of Deng Xiaoping Theory for an All-round Advancement of the Cause of Building Socialism with Chinese Characteristics’ Into the 21st Century: Report Delivered at the 15th National Congress of the Communist Party of China.”
pointed out: “We should not order other countries around, as much as other countries should not do so. This should be an important principle.”40 “China should attend to some backward countries that have suffered from aggression and oppression by offering friendly support and aid, but it should not meddle with their internal affairs and “export revolution.”41 Moreover, “China’s experience can only be used as a reference, not copied.”42
Defending international justice is also shown in China’s efforts to protect the legitimate rights and interests of most countries and people in the world, while opposing hegemony and “might makes right” politics. As a country that was vulnerable to foreign attack due to poverty and backwardness, China is fully aware of the harm caused by the politics of domination and coercion, and it is therefore firmly opposed to the use or threat of force or supremacy in any form. The PRC issued a declaration soon after its establishment, expressing that “we oppose whoever engages in hegemonism and whoever invades others.”43 As China becomes stronger, it also solemnly vows to the world that it will never seek hegemony or expansion regardless of its stage of development. “China now belongs to the Third World and will still belong to the Third World.”44 Contemporary China, which has moved to the center of the world stage by now, is still firmly committed that it will “always stand with the developing countries in the United Nations.”45
The essential nature of socialist Chinese diplomacy is mainly determined by the CPC’S status as the core of leadership in China’s diplomatic system. The CPC, as a Marxist political party and the largest political party in the world, not only seeks happiness for the Chinese people, but also strives for the cause of human progress. The CPC has 40 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.2, pp.318-319.
41 Mao Zedong’s Anthology, Vol.8, p.318.
42 Mao Zedong’s Anthology, Vol.7, p.64.
43 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.3, p.162.
44 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.3, p.56.
45 Xi Jinping, “Working Together to Create a New Mutually Beneficial Partnership and Community of Shared Future for Mankind — Speech at the General Debate of the 70th Session of the UN General Assembly,” People’s Daily, September 29, 2015.
always regarded as its mission to make a greater contribution to humanity. Socialist China under the leadership of the CPC has stayed loyal to the idea of fairness and justice, and it has meant to uphold justice while pursuing shared interests in today’s new historic juncture. Xi Jinping stated: “Justice reflects our philosophy, the idea of communists and socialist countries. It is not good that some people in this world are doing very well while others badly. Real happiness is the happiness of all. We hope that the world will develop together, especially that developing countries will develop at a higher speed. The pursuit of interests should be based on the principle of mutual benefits and win-win outcomes instead of a zero-sum game. It is our obligation to help poor countries to the best of our ability. Sometimes we have to opt for justice rather than interests and should refrain from being profit-driven.”46
Peace: the most distinctive feature of Chinese diplomacy
Maintaining world peace remains the focus of China’s international responsibility because peace is the core of China’s diplomatic philosophy. The PRC has constantly and firmly upheld its foreign policy objective of securing peace since its founding. Whether in times of revolution and war, or in times of tranquility and development, whether in the period of poverty and backwardness or after having entered the period of prosperity and progress, China has always pursued and put its strength behind a foreign policy of lasting peace in the world.
Soon after the PRC was founded, the first-generation central collective leadership with Chairman Mao Zedong at its core established an independent foreign policy of peace, and actively worked with India and Myanmar to advocate the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence as the basic principle of international relations. Since the reform and openingup, the second-generation collective leadership with Deng Xiaoping as the core created the concept of peaceful development, and advocated world 46 Wang Yi, “Upholding the Concept of Justice and Interests and Actively Performing the Role of a Responsible Major Country,” People’s Daily, September 10, 2013.
peace through cooperation with all countries in the world on the basis of peaceful coexistence. After the Cold War ended, the third-generation collective leadership with Jiang Zemin at its core further improved the notion of peaceful development and put forward the idea of “common prosperity for the world.” After entering the 21st century, the CPC central leadership with Hu Jintao as General Secretary put forward the concept of “harmonious world” and called on the international community to “work together to build a harmonious world with lasting peace and common prosperity.” Since the 18th CPC National Congress, the Party’s central leadership with Xi Jinping at the core has actively championed a community with a shared future for mankind, clearly indicating that China “wants, more than anything else, to live in peace and harmony with the people of other countries, and work with them to promote, safeguard and share peace together.”
Even in the era of revolution and wars, China regarded peace as the primary choice and ultimate goal of its foreign policy. Soon after the establishment of the PRC, China assumed the responsibility of maintaining world peace, although the new regime had not been fully accepted by the international community. Mao Zedong commented on this situation: “It is our responsibility to foster world peace and refrain from acting capriciously, which is not subject to whether the US recognizes us or whether we are part of the United Nations … What we should do is maintain world peace and prevent any world wars. We propose that inter-state issues be solved through dialogues other than wars.”47 In the face of imperialist and hegemonistic wars of aggression, China, while demonstrating resolute in opposing unjust wars, never shied away from winning wars to achieve greater peace. As Mao Zedong said: “Our wars are characterized as being sacred, just, progressive, and peace-oriented. They serve to maintain lasting peace of not only one individual country, but all countries.”48 47 Mao Zedong’s Anthology, Vol.8, p.217. 48 Selected Works of Mao Zedong on Diplomacy, Central Literature Publishing House & World Affairs Press, 1994, p.11.
China’s foreign policy of peace is an illustration and creative development of its noble cultural traditions, and is the inevitable choice of the Chinese people, reflecting on the sufferings it had endured since 1840. It is also an essential requirement for China to be committed to the socialist system. “If China, with a population of more than a billion, does not adhere to the policy of peace, or does not oppose hegemonism, or engages in hegemonism with its economic development, it is a disaster for the world and also a retrogression in history.”49 “Only by pursuing peaceful development and working together with all other countries to uphold world peace can China realize its goal and make greater contributions to the world.”50 China is tirelessly pursuing peace, but it “will never give up its legitimate rights and interests,” and “no country should expect China to trade its core interests away, and swallow the bitter fruit that undermines its own interests.”51
Conclusion
Since its founding in 1949, the PRC has been a responsible member of the international community, dealing with regional and international affairs in a serious and reliable manner, and taking the initiative to assume international responsibility. This has created a favorable international environment and a positive international reputation for China. Today, as a responsible major country, China is actively making greater contributions to the betterment of human society by advancing the building of a community with a shared future for mankind.
First, shared responsibility. International responsibility is the shared responsibility of all international members. China’s commitment to building a better world is in line with the interests and aspirations of people of the 49 Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, Vol.3, p.158.
50 “Promoting the Building of a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind: On Major-country Diplomacy with Chinese Characteristics in the New Era,” People’s Daily, August 14, 2019.
51 Ibid.
world and requires joint efforts with the international community. Countries with ample capacity have the means to contribute more and should not shirk or transfer their responsibility.
Second, consistency of rights and duties. Duties and rights are an integral and inseparable unity. As demonstrated by its diplomatic practices, an expansion of rights and interests is not China’s primary goal when shouldering greater international responsibility; on the other hand, as a developing country China still needs to continuously improve its strength and international status. In fact, China’s sense of responsibility has become stronger with its growing national power, and serves to upgrade its engagement in international affairs.
Third, the balance of capacity and responsibility. Responsibility should be based on capacity. A sense of responsibility that cannot be achieved will have an adverse international impact. Kissinger once proudly stated: “Except the US, no major power can take improving the well-being of mankind as its strategic goal”, and believed that “only by fulfilling overseas responsibilities can a country remain great.”52 In contrast, the current United States under the Trump administration has not only shirked international responsibility under the banner of “America First,” but has also publicly harmed the interests of other countries and undermined international multilateral cooperation mechanisms. In this context, China, while seeking to take on greater responsibilities, should refrain from doing so beyond its actual capabilities.
Besides, international responsibility and domestic responsibility are mutually interdependent as an inseparable unity. For modern governments, accountability to their people is the primary and basic responsibility. For better assuming international responsibility, a country must first implement its domestic responsibility. Hence, while shouldering greater international responsibility, China must strike a balance between and well coordinate its international and internal imperatives. 52 Henry Kissinger, World Order, translated by Hu Liping, et. al., CITIC Press, 2015, pp.398 & 430.