Security Cooperation of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: Achievements, Challenges and Paths for Further Development

Since its establishment, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization has achieved fruitful security cooperation. In SCO security cooperation, common security

challenges are the essential thrust, shared aspirations for stability and development are the driving force, and the leading role of China and Russia is the core support for its upgrading. In the future, SCO member states need a stronger sense of security community and more security cooperation to build an SCO community of security for all.

Security cooperation is one of the three pillars of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and has always been a priority in the SCO’S cooperation. Over the past 20 years since its establishment, SCO security cooperation has achieved outstanding results and has become the cornerstone of mutual trust among member states and an important driving force for the SCO’S sustainable development. At present, as major changes unseen in a century are compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic across the world, the international and regional security situation is undergoing profound and complex changes. Reviewing the achievements of SCO security cooperation and summarizing the experience gained will help deepen security cooperation in the future, allowing the SCO to deal confidently with the new challenges in regional security and provide a solid guarantee for regional security and stability.

Major Achievements in SCO Security Cooperation

From the Shanghai Spirit and the new security concept to the vision of building a security community, the SCO continues to enrich regional security cooperation, consolidate the legal basis for cooperation and establish a cooperation framework. Significant progress has been made in combating the three forces of terrorism, separatism and extremism, dealing

with various non-traditional security threats, and promoting joint law enforcement.

Enriching and developing security cooperation concepts

The SCO advocates regional security cooperation and stresses the awareness of cooperative security. Since the establishment of the SCO, its member states have been converging in their understanding of security cooperation. It has provided theoretical guidance for regional security cooperation and contributed to the exploration of a new security concept by the international community and the establishment of a more just and rational international order.

The Shanghai Spirit, as a guiding principle for the relations between SCO member states, provides an internal impetus and solid cohesion for SCO security cooperation. It was formed during the period of the Shanghai Five. Two crucial documents, the Agreement on Confidence Building in the Military Field in the Border Area (1996) and the Agreement on Mutual Reduction of Military Forces in the Border Areas (1997) signed by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, are of great significance. The documents thoroughly resolved border delimitation and led to goodneighborly friendship in the border areas, transcending the traditional mode of cooperation by advocating a new security concept and underlining multilateral security cooperation based on common interests. “The Shanghai Spirit ... is a unique source of successful activity of the SCO and serves as an important landmark in the development of interstate relations, countering global challenges and threats, settlement of international disputes.”1 In the past 20 years of security cooperation, the Shanghai Spirit has been enriched and enhanced, which, in tandem with the new security concept, is “of critical importance to the international community’s pursuit of a new and non-confrontational model of international relations, a model that calls for discarding the Cold War mentality and transcending

ideological differences.”2

In the process of security cooperation, SCO member states have developed a growing desire to work together to safeguard security, and they have practiced the new security concept and promoted its development. The traditional view of security is based on realism, which judges the security environment and threats from political, military or diplomatic perspectives, believing that human nature is intrinsically evil.3 However, the new security concept calls for rejecting the Cold War mentality, and instead taking mutual trust, disarmament and cooperative security as its corollaries. It advocates creating a new regional cooperation model featuring joint participation by large and small countries, security first, and mutually beneficial cooperation. It opposes the practice of seeking absolute security for oneself at the expense of other countries’ security and pursues security for all parties. At the SCO inaugural ceremony in 2001, then Chinese President Jiang Zemin pointed out that the new security concept has “enriched the new state-to-state relationship jointly initiated by China and Russia with partnership and non-alignment as the core.” “The Shanghai Spirit, which has been developed during the ’Shanghai Five’ process and features mutual trust, mutual benefit, equality, consultation, respect for different civilizations and common prosperity,” Jiang said, “is not only the summary of the experience of the five countries in handling mutual relationships, but is also of practical significance in pushing forward a just and rational new order of international politics and economy.”4 The new security concept advocates seeking security through mutual trust and promoting cooperation through dialogue. It has enhanced the theoretical basis for SCO security cooperation. At the 18th meeting of the Council of Heads of Government (Prime Ministers) in Tashkent in November 2019, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang pointed out, “As threats

and challenges keep coming our way, SCO members need to maintain close communication and coordination, enhance mutual support, and work for common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security. By doing so, we will build on SCO’S strength in security cooperation to jointly preserve stability and tranquility in the region and create a favorable external environment for economic and social endeavors in our own countries.”5

The SCO security community embodies the Shanghai Spirit and the new security concept and is the SCO’S development goal in the new era. The idea of a security community is consistent with the Shanghai Spirit and the new security concept and is a specific example of the theory of building a community with a shared future for mankind. At the SCO Moscow summit of the Council of Heads of State in 2020, Chinese President Xi Jinping proposed building “four communities,” in which the “security community” provides preconditions for regional stability and development. “Security and stability are the number one precondition for a country’s development, and thus concern the core interests of all countries. We need to act on the vision of common, comprehensive, cooperative, and sustainable security, address all forms of threats and challenges effectively, and foster a sound security environment in our region.”6 The SCO advocates multilateralism and puts forward the “SCO approach.” The concept of a security community is a concrete interpretation of the ideas mentioned above, which meets the real needs and conforms to the fundamental interests of all member states. Heightened recognition of the security community among member states is key to their practical cooperation in the security field. The spirit of “sharing security and risks and responding to threats together” is one of the core values of the SCO

security community, which requires all member states to pursue common, comprehensive, cooperative, and sustainable security and strengthen the SCO’S ability to respond to complex situations.7

Consolidating legal basis for security cooperation

Under the guidance of a common security concept, the leaders of SCO member states continue to reach consensus on security cooperation, coordinate their positions, and clarify the main tasks of security cooperation, creating conditions for formulating relevant legal documents and cooperation agreements. On this basis, a series of programmatic documents have clearly defined the purposes and focus of security cooperation, put forward guidance on cooperation models and measures, and formulate overall response plans based on changes of regional security threats in different periods. These essential and programmatic documents include the Declaration on the Establishment of the SCO, the SCO Charter, the Development Strategy of the SCO until 2025, the Treaty on Long-term Good-neighborliness, Friendship and Cooperation, etc. The Declaration on the Establishment of the SCO points out that one of the purposes of the SCO is to “make joint efforts to maintain and ensure peace, security, and stability in the region,” and “attach priority to regional security and take all necessary efforts to maintain it.”8 The SCO Charter further indicates that the primary goals and tasks of the SCO are “strengthening mutual trust, friendship and good-neighborliness between the member States; developing multifaceted cooperation in the maintenance and strengthening of peace, security and stability in the region and promoting a new democratic, fair and rational political and economic international order; jointly combating terrorism, separatism, and extremism in all their manifestations, and fighting against illicit narcotics

and arms trafficking and other types of transnational criminal activity, and also illegal migration.”9

Fighting against the “three forces” was the initial focus and long-term goal of SCO security cooperation. The SCO member states have signed a series of legal documents on jointly combating the “three forces.” The Shanghai Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism signed in June 2001 makes a clear legal definition of terrorism, separatism, and extremism. It also stipulates the specific methods and procedures for relevant cooperation. This is an important step taken by the SCO in deepening security cooperation, laying a legal foundation for jointly combating the “three forces.” The Agreement on Regional Anti-terrorist Structure between the Member States of the SCO, signed in June 2002, elaborates on the purposes, missions, status, and principles of the Regional Anti-terrorist Structure, as well as the privileges and immunities of its staff. The document provides an institutional foundation for all countries to fight against international terrorism and conduct extensive anti-terrorism cooperation. The Concept of SCO Member States to Combat Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism, signed in July 2005, is another critical document for security cooperation. It points out that the member states will take all possible measures to combat terrorism, separatism and extremism within the purview of the SCO. It also formulates the main tasks, directions and forms of cooperation, and the implementation mechanism of the Concept.10 In 2017, the SCO Astana summit of the Council of Heads of State signed the SCO Convention on Countering Extremism. So far, the SCO has formed a complete legal system for combating the “three forces,” which provides a solid legal foundation for the member states to fight against them jointly.

The SCO member states have also reached a series of specific agreements on law enforcement cooperation, including the Joint Statement

of the Meeting of Ministers of Justice, the Agreement on the Database of the Regional Anti-terrorist Structure of the SCO, and the Agreement on Cooperation between the Governments of SCO Member States in Combating Illicit Trafficking in Arms, Ammunition and Explosives. In addition to anti-terrorism, the SCO also attaches importance to the fight against drugs and organized crime. The Agreement between the SCO Member States on Cooperation in Combating Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs, Psychotropic Substances and Their Precursors signed in 2004 determines the direction, specific content and methods of antidrug cooperation, promoting practical plans for anti-drug cooperation. Furthermore, the member states signed the Action Plan for 2019-2020 on the implementation of the Program of Action for the SCO Anti-drug Strategy for 2018-2023, the SCO Plan of Action for Cooperation with Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on Fighting Terrorism, Drug Trafficking and Organized Crimes, and the Agreement on Cooperation in Combating Crime between the Governments of SCO Member States, etc. The Development Strategy of the SCO until 2025 lists drug control as a priority for international cooperation, and indicates that the focus of future drug control cooperation is to enhance external cooperation, carry out joint actions, promote capacity building, and deepen cooperation in the field of demand reduction.

Improving mechanisms of security cooperation

The documents and agreements mentioned earlier have built a basic framework for SCO security cooperation and promoted the continuous improvement of cooperation mechanisms. To implement the consensus reached by SCO leaders on security cooperation and fulfill the related cooperation agreements, the SCO attaches great importance to the establishment of security cooperation mechanisms. It has set up a multilevel system of cooperation mechanisms involving the participation of relevant departments.

A regular meeting mechanism at all levels between the member

states’ law enforcement and military agencies has been established. Since 2004, the SCO member states have held regular meetings between their law enforcement and military agencies. In the law enforcement field, there are meetings of security council secretaries, ministers of interior and public security, heads of supreme courts and courts of arbitration, and prosecutors-general, etc. The member states have also actively conducted mutual judicial assistance through multilateral cooperation; cooperated in the fields of investigation, evidence collection, arrest and extradition of criminals, and transfer of money and property; developed a direct cooperation mechanism between the prosecutors’ offices in the member states’ border areas; established an effective mechanism of judicial information exchange; and advanced exchanges between the prosecutors’ offices. In the military field, there are meetings of defense ministers, chiefs of general staff of the SCO member states’ armed forces, heads of international military cooperation departments of the defense ministry, heads of the member states’ competent authorities in charge of combating illicit drug trafficking, leaders of border defense departments, and the system of mutual inspection in border areas. The mechanisms mentioned above have gradually shown their effectiveness. They have reduced the institutional barriers to law enforcement cooperation between SCO member states, promoted consultations and intelligence exchanges on security issues, and played a positive role in promoting multilateral law enforcement cooperation and military security cooperation between member states.

A regional anti-terrorist permanent institution has been established. The Regional Anti-terrorist Structure of the SCO was formally established in June 2004. It includes an Executive Committee and a Council and mainly performs four functions: 1) maintaining working contact with the competent authorities of SCO member states and international organizations on combating terrorism, separatism, and extremism, and strengthening coordination of actions; 2) participating in the preparation of draft international legal documents on combating terrorism, separatism,

and extremism, and working with the UN Security Council and its antiterrorism committee and international and regional organizations to establish an effective response mechanism to global challenges and threats; 3) collecting and analyzing information on combating terrorism, separatism, and extremism provided by the member states, and establishing a database for anti-terrorism agencies, and 4) offering suggestions and opinions for combating the “three forces” and preparing academic seminars to exchange relevant experience.

The anti-drug cooperation mechanism is improving. A three-level meeting mechanism among the anti-drug departments of SCO member states has been established, including leaders, senior officials, and expert working groups, providing a platform for the anti-drug departments to strengthen communication and organizational coordination. At the same time, four expert groups on legal issues, anti-drug law enforcement, control of precursor chemicals, and demand reduction have been established, covering the main areas of SCO drug control cooperation, providing an expert dialogue platform for practical collaboration.

An emergency response mechanism has been established for major emergencies. On January 7, 2002, the meeting of foreign ministers of SCO member states adopted a principle for emergency response. In major emergencies, the foreign ministers of two or more countries can propose to convene an emergency meeting of the six foreign ministers to discuss countermeasures and coordinate their stances. The statement by the foreign ministers may elaborate views and propositions on the emergency. Establishing an emergency response mechanism is of particular importance to regional security governance, creating a favorable condition for the SCO to take timely and effective measures in response to emergencies.

Deepening and expanding practical cooperation

The SCO security cooperation begins with border security cooperation. As the international and regional security situation continues to change, security cooperation in different periods has different priorities.

With the improvement of the SCO security mechanisms, practical cooperation has expanded from the anti-terrorism field to defense and law enforcement.

Fighting against the “three forces” is one of the fundamental tasks of the SCO. Over the past 20 years, SCO member states have conducted productive cooperation in anti-terrorism capacity building, intelligence exchange, eradicating extremism, and combating cyber terrorism.

Holding joint anti-terrorism military exercises to promote the capabilities of member states’ law enforcement agencies. The first bilateral military exercise within the SCO framework was held in October 2002 by China and Kyrgyzstan. Since then, the SCO has held bilateral or multilateral anti-terrorism military exercises every year, including the Peace Mission, the largest and most effective joint anti-terrorism military exercises by the member states’ armed forces. In August 2003, a joint anti-terrorism military training code-named Coalition-2003 was held by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan with a total of more than 1,000 participants. This is the first time the SCO had a multilateral cross-border joint anti-terrorism military exercise, marking a new stage of military cooperation between its member states. In August 2007, the SCO member states held the Peace Mission-2007 joint anti-terrorism military exercise in Russia. This is the first anti-terrorism exercise involving all member states of the SCO. During the activities, the member states have exchanged research achievements on anti-terrorism operations and improved the operational mechanisms of joint anti-terrorism combat, which laid a foundation for future joint anti-terrorism operations.

In August 2008, the heads of SCO member states signed the Agreement on the Procedure for Organizing and Conducting Joint Antiterrorist Exercises, which further regulates the procedures of joint antiterrorism exercises and provides a legal guarantee for the mechanismbuilding of joint anti-terrorism exercises by law enforcement agencies. In 2019, the SCO member states held the joint border operation Solidarity 2019-2021 and the joint anti-terrorist exercise Sary-arka-antiterror-2019.

With national defense, border defense and various other forces of member states involved, the joint anti-terrorism military exercises weave a threedimensional anti-terrorism cooperation network, and help accumulate a wealth of anti-terrorism experience. The joint anti-terrorism military exercises to strengthen security cooperation and maintain regional stability have both political and practical significance. The political value is that the activities can have a deterrent effect on terrorism by demonstrating the strong determination and confidence of member states in anti-terrorism, promoting political and security cooperation between member states, and improving the international prestige of the SCO. The practical significance lies in strengthening the capabilities of anti-terrorism collaboration among the law enforcement agencies of member states, promoting information exchanges, and jointly exploring the methods to combat the “three forces.” It is also beneficial for Central Asian member states to improve their defense capabilities.

Establishing various forms of intelligence exchange mechanisms. The SCO attaches great importance to the role of the Regional Anti-terrorist Structure. It has established an anti-terrorist database that provides information on personnel involved in international terrorist, separatist and extremist activities. Competent authorities of relevant countries regularly provide intelligence clues to each other, exchange anti-terrorism information and hold multilateral anti-terrorism seminars. As of March 2019, the terrorist database of the SCO Regional Anti-terrorist Structure contained information on more than 45,000 persons.

Focusing on new anti-terrorism issues and strengthening cooperation in eradicating extremism and combating cyber terrorism. With new changes in the situation of international and regional terrorism, the SCO’S antiterrorism cooperation has entered a stage of intense cultivation. The Statement by the Heads of the Member States of the SCO on Joint Counteraction to International Terrorism signed in 2017 pointed out that the SCO attached importance to young people who have been involved in the “three forces.” It emphasizes the need to strengthen education on

eradicating extremism among young people and stresses that the member states should continue to fulfill the Joint Address of the SCO Heads of State to the Youth and the Action Plan on its implementation, taking actions to prevent the spread of religious intolerance, xenophobia and racial discrimination. The SCO also stresses the severity of cyber terrorism and the necessity of cooperation. The Xiamen-2019 joint exercise against cyber terrorism was held in 2019. In 2020, the Statement of the Council of Heads of State on Countering the Spread of Terrorist, Separatist, and Extremist Ideology, Including Online, was signed.

Over the years, the SCO member states have united and cooperated in combating the “three forces.” Their practical actions have proven to be positive and effective, and the spread of the “three forces” has been effectively curbed. The security situation of the member states is reasonably well under control. In particular, the security situation of the Central Asian member states has improved significantly: first, major terrorist activities have greatly reduced, incidents like violent terrorist attacks in the capital and other big cities with serious consequences have rarely occurred; second, through close intelligence exchanges and joint law enforcement actions to arrest terrorists, terrorist forces active in the Ferghana region of Central Asia have been weakened; the third is increasing cooperation in cracking down on the circulation of international terrorists. In the current situation where global terrorism is rampant, the return of jihadists in the Middle East to Central Asia has been effectively curbed.

In terms of law enforcement cooperation, the member states have strengthened drug control cooperation, promoted joint combat on organized crime, and attached importance to judicial communication and personnel training.

Taking active joint law enforcement actions against drugs and organized crime. The SCO member states have held a series of international antidrug operations such as “Mouse Trap” and “Spider Web,” with remarkable achievements. Under the framework of the SCO, training courses for anti-drug officials have been held on many occasions to provide

opportunities for the officials of member states’ drug control departments to conduct exchanges, deepen understanding and improve law enforcement capabilities. The SCO pays attention to combating transnational organized criminal activities. The member states have conducted cooperation on anti-money laundering and the security of energy transportation pipelines. In May 2019, the SCO held a high-level international conference “International and Regional Cooperation on Countering Terrorism and Its Financing through Illicit Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime” in Dushanbe.

Actively conducting communication and dialogue on new issues such as biosecurity and information security. At the meeting of the SCO Heads of State Council in 2020, President Xi Jinping announced that “China has launched the Global Initiative on Data Security, which aims to galvanize efforts to shape a peaceful, secure, open, cooperative and orderly cyberspace.”11 In 2021, the SCO Heads of State Council signed the Statement on Cooperation in the Field of International Information Security. Since the outbreak of COVID-19, China has attached great importance to the issue of biosecurity. State Councilor and Minister of Foreign Affairs Wang Yi suggested at the video conference of SCO foreign ministers in 2020 that China will continue to engage in information-sharing and joint research and development of drugs and vaccines and work with all others to build a community of health for all.12

Regarding defense cooperation, the member states have conducted extensive cooperation and exchanges in border defense, personnel training, and other areas. Border security cooperation is an essential part of the SCO’S defense cooperation. During the Shanghai Five period, the border security cooperation has thoroughly deepened the goodneighborly friendship and mutual trust among countries in the region and

has become a solid foundation for the establishment of the SCO. Since the establishment of the SCO, border security cooperation has further developed. China and Russia have offered military assistance and training of military personnel to member states from Central Asia, focusing on strengthening the defense of border areas. At the same time, member states have conducted many multilateral or bilateral joint military exercises on anti-terrorism.

Promoting reconciliation and reconstruction of Afghanistan

Soon after the establishment of the SCO, the September 11 attacks took place. The United States and other NATO countries entered Afghanistan in the name of anti-terrorism. In the past 20 years, not only did they fail to bring peace to Afghanistan, but they instead plunged Afghanistan into a quagmire of war. The SCO is always concerned about the situation in Afghanistan and actively works to promote the peace and reconciliation process in the country. Successive declarations issued by the SCO Heads of State Council all involve the Afghan issue and clearly state the position of the SCO. On November 4, 2005, the Secretary-general of the SCO and the Afghan ambassador to China signed in Beijing the Protocol on the Establishment of the Sco-afghanistan Contact Group, aimed at making suggestions on Sco-afghan cooperation on issues of mutual interest. The members of the Contact Group include officials of the SCO Secretariat, representatives of the member states to the Secretariat, and senior Afghan diplomats. As an essential bridge for cooperation between the SCO and Afghanistan, the Contact Group has held many meetings at counselor and deputy foreign ministerial levels. However, relevant work was suspended between 2009 to 2016. Since its resumption in 2017, the Contact Group has held three deputy foreign ministerial meetings successively in Moscow, Beijing, and Bishkek, focusing on issues such as the situation in Afghanistan, the Afghan reconciliation process, and the priorities of cooperation between the SCO and Afghanistan, formulating a work plan for the next stage. On June 14, 2019, the 19th

meeting of the SCO Heads of State Council passed the Roadmap for Further Steps by the Sco-afghanistan Contact Group, strengthening the Contact Group’s work.

The SCO attaches great importance to drug problems in Afghanistan, calling for “continuously strengthening cooperation in drug control within the framework of the organization,”13 and stressing “the need for sustained international support to strengthen Afghan security institutions to effectively combat the scourge of terrorism and production and trafficking of narcotics.”14 In 2009, the SCO and Afghanistan signed the Plan of Action on Combating Terrorism, Illicit Drug Trafficking and Organized Crime. The two sides agreed to conduct anti-drug cooperation and build an antidrug belt around Afghanistan. The SCO is also devoted to establishing a platform for member states to enhance anti-drug cooperation with Afghanistan. For example, it held the expert working group meeting of the Paris Pact Initiative in November 2019.

Under the framework of the SCO, the member states have provided a large amount of humanitarian assistance to Afghanistan. China has been delivering assistance in medical care, education, economic construction and personnel training, and helping Afghanistan build the National Army through military aid and personnel training. Russia has also provided assistance in Afghanistan through various channels. For example, the Russian Ministry of Defense provided Afghanistan with vehicles and other military equipment worth US$200 million from 2002 to 2005. It has also contributed considerable humanitarian assistance. In August 2007, Russia announced the cancellation of Afghanistan’s US$11 billion debt, accounting for 90 percent of the total debt owed by Afghanistan to Russia.15 The SCO member states in Central Asia have also offered assistance to Afghanistan

within their capacity, helping Afghanistan build roads, schools, hospitals, etc. In November 2009, Kazakhstan and Afghanistan signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of education. In March 2021, Uzbekistan announced the construction of the Trans-afghanistan Railway Project (Mazari Sharif-kabul-peshawar).

Reasons for the Achievements

The achievements of SCO security cooperation are the result of joint efforts by the member states in the context of the regional security situation.

Common security threats

The member states’ common pursuit of security is the endogenous driving force of SCO security cooperation. In the early 1990s, Russia and Central Asian countries were gravely threatened by terrorism and extremism. In 1994 and 1996, two wars broke out in Chechnya, Russia; terrorist activities were rampant in the Caucasus. From 1999 to 2000, violent terrorist attacks reached a peak in Central Asia. Terrorist and extremist organizations such as the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan and the Islamic Liberation Party were very active. They launched many major terrorist attacks and spread the ideas of extremism, posing a severe security challenge to Central Asian countries.

Meanwhile, the war in Afghanistan has had a practical impact on the situation in the SCO region. The proliferation of the “three forces” in Central Asia and transnational criminal activities are primarily related to the war, drug trade, and smuggling in Afghanistan.

Under such circumstances, the SCO has taken combating the “three forces” and curbing the production and smuggling of drugs as the main tasks in the early days of its establishment. The 2001 Declaration on the Establishment of the SCO pointed out that “the SCO attaches priority to regional security and takes all necessary efforts to maintain it. The member states shall closely cooperate in implementing the Shanghai

Convention on Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism.”16 The 2004 Tashkent Declaration by the Heads of the Member States of the SCO emphasized that “response to the complex challenges of our time – be they international terrorism or regional conflicts and crises – can and must be found on a multilateral and cooperative basis without categorizing States and under the leadership of the UN, while observing its Charter, rules and principles of the international law. Only this approach will ensure international security and stability in a globalizing world. SCO is strongly committed to these principles and expresses its willingness to actively cooperate with all states and multilateral associations within this conceptual framework.”17

The SCO attaches importance to the severe threats to regional security and the spillover of terrorism from the war in Afghanistan. It tries to provide an effective and reliable cooperation platform for regional countries through institutional improvement and pragmatic cooperation in the security field. The SCO advocates “further improvement of the SCO drug control cooperation mechanism.” It “stress[es] the need to strengthen international and regional cooperation to counter the threat of narcotics.” It also calls for “stopping the attempts to spread terrorist ideology” and “intend[s] to invest more efforts in combating terrorist threat using the capacity of the SCO Regional Anti-terrorism Structure to a greater extent.” It will also continue the practice of joint SCO counter-terrorism exercises and commit to “counter the growing illegal trafficking in arms, munitions, explosives and other types of transnational organized crime.”18

As the regional situation has changed and the demands for cooperative security of Central Asian countries expanded, combating non-traditional security threats has become the focus of Central Asian countries in

safeguarding regional and national stability. Central Asian countries have an urgent need for security cooperation from the SCO. In a word, the common security appeal has helped build consensus among SCO member states on security cooperation, and the threats facing member states have pushed the SCO to make security cooperation a priority agenda and continue to strengthen it.

Advanced cooperation concepts

The predecessor of the SCO was the Shanghai Five mechanism. In 2001, Uzbekistan joined with equal status, and the SCO was established. In June 2017, with the accession of India and Pakistan, the number of SCO member states increased to eight. While the SCO member states include world powers, regional powers and weaker countries with large differences in history, culture, social system as well as security interests and appeals, they are facing similar non-traditional security challenges. Only through genuine cooperation can all member states achieve winwin results. Over the past 20 years, security cooperation has not only been the starting point of the SCO, but also served as a driving force to promote the SCO’S mechanism-building and enrich the concept of winwin cooperation.

President Xi Jinping, in his keynote speech at the 2014 summit of the Conference on Interaction and Confidence Building Measures in Asia (CICA), advocated common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security in Asia and called for jointly building a road for security of Asia that is shared by and win-win to all. These propositions have been widely recognized by SCO member states. At the SCO Qingdao summit in 2018, President Xi called for a concerted effort to build an SCO community with a shared future and a new type of international relations, through which the member states could join hands to move towards an open, inclusive, clean and beautiful world that enjoys lasting peace, universal security, and shared prosperity.

At the SCO Bishkek summit in 2019, President Xi put forward the

proposal to make the SCO an example of common security. In the video meeting of the SCO Heads of State Council in November 2020, President Xi proposed to carry forward the Shanghai Spirit, step up anti-epidemic cooperation, safeguard security and stability, deepen practical cooperation, and nourish people-to-people friendship. Xi called for SCO countries’ joint efforts to build a community of health, a community of security, a community of development, and a community of cultural exchanges for all, and take more steps toward building a community with a shared future for mankind. In the face of the new situation where major changes unseen in a century have been greatly exacerbated by the COVID outbreak, striving to build these “four communities“is a prerequisite for ensuring longterm stability and prosperity in the SCO region. The SCO adheres to the principles of openness, transparency, and no targeting third parties. It does not seek to establish military or political alliances, resolutely opposes the Cold War mentality and power politics, and aims to create a new model of regional cooperation based on non-alignment that features joint contribution by large and small countries alike, security first, and mutually beneficial cooperation.

Leading role of China and Russia

The SCO adheres to the principle that every country, large or small, is equal, but as permanent members of the UN Security Council, China and Russia play a central role in the SCO’S construction. The high-level strategic coordination between the two countries is a core driving force for SCO security cooperation.

China and Russia promoted the establishment and development of a new security concept in the SCO. As responsible countries, they have actively facilitated the construction of a new international order and safeguarded global and regional security and stability. In April 1997 in Moscow, the heads of state of China and Russia signed the Joint Statement on Worldwide Multi-polarization and Establishment of New International Order. The Statement calls for discarding the Cold War mentality and

emphasizes the importance of resolving differences or disputes between countries by peaceful means, and not by resorting to force or threat of force; it calls for promoting mutual understanding and trust through dialogue and consultation and seeking peace and security through bilateral and multilateral coordination and cooperation.

In July 2005, leaders of the two countries signed the Joint Statement on the International Order of the 21st Century in Moscow, calling on the international community to establish a new type of security structure featuring mutual trust and mutual benefit, equality, and cooperation. It also emphasizes that the system must be based politically on universally recognized norms governing international relations, and economically on mutually beneficial cooperation, and should be based on respect for the equal security rights of all countries. The Declaration on the Establishment of the SCO, signed by China, Russia and other SCO member states in June 2001, stresses that the SCO aims at strengthening mutual trust, friendship, and good neighborliness between the member states; encouraging practical cooperation between them in the political, trade, economic, scientific, technical, cultural, educational, energy, transport, environmental and other fields; making joint efforts to maintain and ensure peace, security, and stability in the region; and establishing a new, democratic, just and rational international political and economic order.

Both China and Russia strongly support holding joint anti-terrorism military exercises under the framework of the SCO. They have made outstanding contributions to maintaining regional peace and stability. The Peace Mission, the multilateral anti-terrorism military activities of the SCO, began with the bilateral exercises between China and Russia. In August 2005, the two countries held the Peace Mission-2005 joint military exercise in Shandong, which was the first strategic-level joint exercise under the framework of the SCO. In July 2009, China and Russia again held an anti-terrorism exercise under the SCO framework. Promoted by China and Russia, the SCO multilateral anti-terrorism military exercises have been successively held in member states.

China and Russia attach great importance to the SCO’S role in anti-drug efforts and combating cyber terrorism, and have provided public goods such as materials and personnel training for SCO security cooperation. Since 1994, China has offered free military aid such as military supplies, medical equipment, various automobiles, and voice equipment for teaching to the defense ministries of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. It has also helped train military personnel from Central Asian countries in a wide range of disciplines, including high, middle and junior-level command, special operations, the Chinese language, traditional Chinese medicine, martial arts, and “search and seize” operations, etc.19

Challenges of SCO Security Cooperation

As the international situation changes, the geopolitical and security risks facing the SCO region have also risen. For the member states, there is a long way to go in dealing with the regional security challenges.

Changing situation in Afghanistan

The two sides of the Afghan civil war are still in a fragile state of fighting and talking, and the armed forces of different factions in the country are waiting for opportunities to take action. On April 14, 2021, US President Joe Biden announced that the US would withdraw troops from Afghanistan on May 1, which has increased the uncertainty of Afghanistan’s future security situation. The impact of the ongoing war in Afghanistan and the infiltration of international terrorist forces has spilled over into Central Asia, exposing the border areas of Central Asian countries (especially Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan) to threats of organized crime, terrorist attacks, and harassment by illegal armed forces. The international terrorist forces entrenched in Afghanistan are attempting 19 Li Shuyin, “Overview of SCO Military Cooperation,” in Wu Enyuan, Development Report of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (2011), Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press, 2011, p.27.

to turn the Central Asian region into “the middle zone of terrorist and drug circulation,” and establish “a corridor of Central Asian militants” through which Central Asian fighters now active in northern Afghanistan could be transported back to their own countries to engage in violent terrorist attacks. These terrorist organizations are also cooperating with international drug trafficking groups, trying to infiltrate into Central Asia through drug networks. The confluence of terrorist forces in northern Afghanistan has led to increased prison riots and terrorist attacks in some Central Asian countries.

Severe threat of terrorism

Armed personnel from the Middle East, South Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia are integrating with terrorist organizations such as the “Islamic State,” the Haqqani network, “Allah Warrior,” the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, the Islamic Movement of East Turkestan, and Chechen terrorist organizations.20 Terrorist groups in Central and South Asia used to be dominated by one ethnic group; now, they are a mixture of terrorists from different ethnic groups, making the fight against terrorism more difficult. After the collapse of the “Islamic State,” many international terrorist organizations transferred to Central and South Asia. The threat of international terrorism in the SCO region is on the rise. In 2020, the law enforcement department of Russia successfully stopped 61 terrorist crimes, including 41 terrorist attacks.21 In the same year, Uzbekistan cracked down on four extremist operations and arrested 100 terrorist suspects. Kyrgyzstan prevented two terrorist attacks and arrested 29 terrorists and their associates. From January to June 2020, Tajikistan has registered a total of 875 criminal acts connected to terrorism and extremism, arrested more than 200 suspects of terrorist and extremist organizations, and also prevented two premeditated

terrorist attacks. From January to July 2020, a total of 33 terrorist crimes have been committed in Kazakhstan.22

Outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic

In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, Central Asian countries have taken measures like border closures and city lockdowns. Some industries are facing the risk of bankruptcy. The economy of all nations has plummeted. Currency devaluation, soaring unemployment rates, plummeting foreign trade, a burgeoning foreign debt, and increasing poverty are prominent. Some countries have fallen into a severe economic crisis, and people’s livelihood has taken a plunge. Besides, there has also been a sharp decrease in the number of migrant workers going abroad, and the life of people who rely on remittances has been severely impacted. Along with unemployment, rising prices, and other issues, the pressure on social security is increasing, which can easily lead to social unrest.

Meanwhile, previous security problems such as the spread of extremist ideas, organized crime, and drug smuggling have not been effectively curbed. Under the dual influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the complex external environment, the problems mentioned above have become more complicated. They may even evolve into large-scale turmoil and fierce social conflict. Conflicts in the border areas of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are frequent. In April 2021, a clash between the residents of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan on the border escalated into an exchange of fire between the armed forces, resulting in at least 52 deaths and nearly 300 injuries.

Intensifying great-power competition

The United States regards China and Russia as its main strategic competitors and has taken measures to contain and suppress them in various regions and fields. In February 2020, the US released the United States Strategy for Central Asia 2019-2025, aiming to strengthen sovereignty

consciousness in Central Asian countries, sow discord between China, Russia and Central Asian countries, and weaken the influence of China and Russia in Central Asia. The US uses the “C5+1” foreign ministers’ meeting mechanism as a platform, with Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as the key countries, to infiltrate Central Asian countries in all aspects and multiple fields, and separate Central Asian countries from China and Russia. The primary tools used by the US include organizing large-scale protests, intensifying public opinion attacks, and supporting pro-american opposition and “street revolution” youth groups. Through such practical actions and public opinion dissemination, these moves serve to strengthen the United States’ democratic image in the region. The US has also been playing up Xinjiang-related issues, supporting the Xinjiang-related antichina organizations in Central Asian countries, vilifying and devaluing China’s image, and inciting local people’s hatred of China.

Basic Paths for Deepening SCO Security Cooperation

Security cooperation is a priority of the SCO. In a complex and volatile international situation, the SCO member states are faced with shared security challenges. They should further improve the mechanisms for jointly responding to crises, promote the capabilities to take actions, and broaden and deepen practical security cooperation, to create necessary conditions for the prosperity and stability of countries in the region.

Strengthening awareness of building an SCO security community

Stability and development are the typical demands of SCO member states. Among them, stability is the prerequisite, and only with stability can there be development. The concept of a security community meets the shared needs of member states. At present, the SCO member states face the same or similar challenges, such as the war in Afghanistan, terrorism, extremism, the COVID-19 pandemic, poverty, etc.

The SCO should continue to uphold the vision of a security community and enhance the member states’ recognition of common regional security. The SCO member states differ in national strength, stage of development, and capacity to respond to security threats. They need to support each other and cooperate in the security field. The concept of an SCO security community underlines the common threats facing the SCO member states and the common task of eradicating extremism. It will help member states establish a correct understanding of regional security governance and create conditions for deeper security cooperation. Each member state has suffered dramatically in the face of the increasingly complex and severe threat of terrorism and extremism. Heightened recognition of a security community is essential to promote practical security cooperation among all countries. Only by strengthening the consensus around the creation of an SCO security community and promoting collaboration can the member countries deal with the growing spread of terrorism and extremism.23

Prioritizing practical security cooperation

The SCO should continue to implement the Cooperation Program of SCO Member States in Combating Terrorism, Separatism and Extremism for 2019-2021, strengthen security cooperation on defense, law enforcement and information-sharing, and promote practical measures such as legal consolidation and capacity building. In this regard, the SCO needs to reinforce anti-terrorism intelligence exchanges and joint operations. The SCO member states should further promote a unified set of standards in identifying terrorist and extremist organizations according the SCO Convention on Countering Extremism, and strengthen information tracking of terrorist organizations in northern Afghanistan. In addition to cooperation on combating terrorism and extremism, the SCO should also

reinforce the fight against separatists, and enhance cooperation between member states in eradicating extremism, an area where China and Russia have rich experience and from which the Central Asian countries can draw valuable lessons. The SCO may set up a unique mechanism for practical cooperation on this issue. Besides, collaboration should be enhanced in such areas as personnel training and cybersecurity.

Preventing and reducing security risks from Afghanistan

The current situation in Afghanistan is complex and volatile, and the threats of terrorism and drug trade are increasing. The withdrawal of the US and NATO troops may create a security vacuum in this region, which would be utilized by the “Islamic State” members lurking in Afghanistan to infiltrate Central Asian countries and other places, thus severely threatening regional security. Member states of the SCO should strengthen cooperation on border security and build practical security barriers. They have to consider the Afghan issue comprehensively, and participate in Afghan affairs with a clear focus. They should make good use of the Scoafghanistan Contact Group mechanism, give full play to its functions in the security field, and establish a concrete and pragmatic agenda. In addition to the traditional areas of security cooperation, the SCO should also pay close attention to the growing drug issue. For example, the member states should increase joint law enforcement actions in the field of drug control to contain the outflow of precursor chemicals, strengthen intelligence exchange and cooperation, and implement the intelligence sharing mechanism on drug-related crimes, thus cutting off drug outflow channels. In particular, the application of “controlled delivery” may be considered to fight against cross-border drug crimes. Besides, the member states should reinforce personnel training of their anti-drug departments, enhance mutual understanding and cooperation between the departments and their personnel, and work to establish a tracking mechanism to monitor the flow of precursor chemicals.