Nineteenth century immigration – Part I

OBJECTIVE

Assess migration schemes to the Caribbean, beginning in the post-emancipation period.

KEY WORDS

Madeirans, Portuguese, liberated Africans, immigration, land accessibility.

FACTORS INFLUENCING MIGRATION TO THE CARIBBEAN

There were two major factors influencing migration schemes to the Caribbean in the post-emancipation period. First, there was a decline in the labour force. With the end of the apprenticeship system in 1838, the planters no longer had a labour force they could easily control. Apprentices had now gained their freedom, and many were reluctant to work anymore on the plantation. In the smaller territories where the ability to access land was limited and alternative occupations were limited, ex-slaves had no choice but to continue plantation work. For example, planters in Barbados and St Kitts had very little difficulty in accessing labour in the post-emancipation period. It was in the large territories, such as Jamaica, British Guiana and Trinidad, that planters faced such difficulty and had to turn to immigration schemes as an alternative labour source. The hope was that immigration would provide a permanent source of labour for the plantations.

Second, migration schemes were used as a means to suppress wages. There was the hope that immigration would generate competition for the ex-slaves and so help to keep wages down. Ex-slaves demanded adequate remuneration, but the planters found that they could suppress wage if they could introduce cheap foreign labour. This, in essence, would reduce the demand power of the ex-slaves because, if they refused what was being offered, an immigrant was quite capable of filling the position. Besides, if sugar production were to continue, a cheap, efficient and reliable source of labour had to be found.

MIGRATION SCHEMES EUROPEANS

Due to a decline in the white population, planters sought European immigrants to increase the size. It was hoped that Europeans would set an example of industry to exslaves and eventually develop into a middle class. They would settle on available lands in the interior, thus forcing ex-slaves off the lands and back to the plantations. Jamaica imported the largest number. Europeans also went to Trinidad, British Guiana, and St Kitts. These immigrants were mainly Scots, Irish, French and Germans. They were recruited under a bounty system.

There were, however, problems with the European scheme. Europeans were unsatisfactory, as most died when they arrived. They died from tropical diseases, heat stroke, and many drank themselves to death. They also refused to work on the plantations with Blacks. Many asked to be sent home or migrated to the United States. Planters also failed to supply proper food, shelter, and medical facilities.

PORTUGUESE

Madeirans were paid only 3d per day in Madeira and were attracted by higher wages in the Caribbean, especially in British Guiana. Many went to Trinidad and a few to the Windward Islands. They were brought in by government bounty. Most came during periods of famine in Madeira (1846-1847). Their numbers decreased after 1847 until the scheme ended in 1882. The problem with the Madeiran scheme was that they died in large numbers. They suffered severely from yellow fever, malaria, overwork and inadequate food. The scheme was very irregular and most of them went into trading as soon as their contracts ended. In addition, the Madeiran government objected to the scheme, since so many of its citizens were leaving, and implemented measures that made it difficult for their recruitment.

AFRICANS

There were two distinct groups of Africans that were used as labourers in the post-emancipation period. These were the free Africans and the liberated Africans. The free Africans were persons who willingly opted to come and work on the plantations in the Caribbean. The liberated Africans were persons freed by British naval personnel from vessels illegally transporting them to the Caribbean as slaves. In regard to the free Africans, attempts were made to obtain them from the Kru Coast and Sierra Leone. The British government was reluctant to grant approval of this scheme as it seemed to be a revival of the slave trade. However, in 1840, approval was granted; at first they were recruited privately, but the British government assumed direct control two years later.

The problem with the scheme, however, was that there were few Africans willing to come to the Caribbean. There were no major push factors in Africa which would make them want to leave. Many who came to the Caribbean did not remain on the plantation; rather, they followed the ex-slaves and settled on lands and became peasant farmers.

The other group was known as liberated Africans. These were the majority that came to the Caribbean after being ‘rescued’ by the British Navy from slave ships bound for Cuba and Brazil. These Africans were forcibly indentured for up to five years in the Caribbean, primarily in British Guiana, Trinidad and Jamaica. The problem with this scheme was that the number of liberated Africans was too small to make a difference to the labour situation. This scheme ended when Cuba and Brazil abolished slavery in 1866 and 1888, respectively. Like the ex-slaves, they abandoned the estates and settled on lands in the interior.