Foreign military bases: Strategic assets with catastrophic costs for host nations
Foreign military bases are installations or facilities located outside the home territory of a state, primarily used to project military power, protect strategic interests, and maintain global influence. They have been a significant aspect of international security strategies since ancient times, serving as critical points for resupply, strategic defense, and power projection.
The concept of foreign military bases has a long history, dating back to the ancient empires. The Romans established fortresses across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East to maintain control over their vast territories. Similarly, the British Empire relied on strategic bases worldwide during its peak, enabling it to control sea routes and colonial possessions.
After World War II, the geopolitical landscape shifted dramatically, leading to the establishment of a new global network of foreign military bases. The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, seeking to expand their influence during the Cold War. This period saw a rapid increase in the number of foreign bases as both superpowers sought to secure strategic positions globally.
During the Cold War, foreign military bases became central to US and Soviet military strategies. The United States established bases throughout Western Europe, the Middle East, and the AsiaPacific region to counter Soviet influence. Key bases like Ramstein Air Base in Germany, Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, and the US Naval Base in Guantanamo Bay became strategic assets in projecting US military power.
The Soviet Union, similarly, maintained bases in Eastern Europe and allied countries, creating a network to support its global ambitions. The Soviet military presence in Cuba, Vietnam, and Ethiopia showcased its strategic reach beyond the immediate European theatre.
After the Cold War, many foreign military bases were closed or downsized as global strategic priorities shifted. However, the United States maintained a substantial network of bases, reflecting its continued role as a global superpower. NATO’s eastward expansion and the “War on Terror” post-9/11 led to the establishment of new bases in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia.
Meanwhile, emerging powers like China and Russia have also begun to expand their military presence abroad. China’s first overseas military base in Djibouti and Russia’s bases in Syria signal a shift toward a more multipolar global military presence.
Today, the global distribution of foreign military bases is dominated by a few major powers. The United States has the largest network of foreign military bases, with estimates ranging between 600 and 800 installations in around 80 countries. Key strategic regions include Europe with bases in Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Poland which serves as the backbone of NATO’s military infrastructure.
In the Middle East, it has bases in Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, and Iraq, playing crucial roles in US military operations in the region. In Asia-Pacific, it has installations in Japan, South Korea, and in Guam that supports US operations in the Indo-Pacific region. In Africa, the US maintains bases and drone facilities in Djibouti, Kenya, and (until recently) in Niger for counterterrorism operations.
Russia maintains military bases in several former Soviet states and allies, including Eastern Europe with bases in Belarus and the Kaliningrad enclave. In the Caucasus and Central Asia, it has installations in Armenia, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. In Syria, Russia’s naval facility in Tartus and airbase in Latakia support its strategic interests in the Middle East.
China’s military presence abroad is still relatively new but rapidly expanding. In Djibouti, China establishes its first overseas military base. In Pakistan, China has potential naval facilities in Gwadar. In the South China Sea, its militarised artificial islands provide strategic support to its interests.
Other nations also maintain limited networks of foreign military bases. France has bases in West Africa and the Indian Ocean. The United Kingdom has military facilities in Cyprus, the Falkland Islands, and Brunei. Turkey maintains bases in Qatar and Somalia.
Despite the strategic importance of foreign military bases for superpowers, their presence often results in significant negative implications for the host nations. These implications are multi-dimensional, ranging from economic and political to social and environmental.
The presence of foreign military bases often leads to economic dependency. Host nations can become reliant on the economic benefits provided by the bases, such as employment opportunities and local business support. However, this dependency can undermine economic diversification and resilience. Djibouti’s economy is heavily reliant on revenue generated from foreign military bases, including those of the United States, France and China. These bases contribute approximately 5% of the nation’s GDP. However, this reliance poses economic risks, as any geopolitical shift or base closure could severely impact the nation’s economy.
Foreign military bases occupy large tracts of land, often in prime locations. This land could otherwise be used for agriculture, tourism, or other economic activities that could generate higher economic returns for the host nation. The US military bases in Okinawa occupy around 18% of the island’s land. This has hindered local economic development, as prime land that could be used for commercial or residential purposes remains under military control. Local businesses also suffer due to competition with the duty-free shops inside the bases.
The presence of military bases can lead to skewed economic development in host nations. Base towns often experience economic booms, but neighbouring areas may not benefit equally, leading to regional economic disparities. While towns near US bases like Clark Air Base and Subic Bay Naval Station experienced economic growth during their operation, other regions of the Philippines remained underdeveloped. The closure of these bases in the 1990s further exposed the regional disparities.
One of the most significant political implications of foreign military bases is the loss of sovereignty. Host nations may find their foreign and defense policies heavily influenced or even dictated by the foreign power operating the base. The US naval base in Bahrain provides significant political