ANCIENT Russian Archery
Kristina Dolgilevica gives us some history.
The AK-47 needs no introduction. Everyone knows it as a distinctly Russian modern weapon. But what of the more ancient weapons? Was there ever a typically Russian traditional bow? The answer to this question is as big and complex as Russia herself. On one hand, the research into Russia’s rich, vast territories is hampered by the scarcity and diffuseness of archaeological evidence, and by the almost complete lack of written histories. However, not all has been lost to time and the elements. Systematic study of Russia’s many peoples and geographies, reconstruction works, secondary accounts, and so on, can help build a picture. This article is a brief introduction to history, classification, development and construction materials of the ancient russian bow, focussing on the more prevalent nomadic composite bow type and the distinguishing features of the Russian archer’s equipment.
Historical Note
Both self-bows (longbow type and war bow), and composite recurves, were widely used across the Russian lands, for warfare, hunting and games. Asiatic laminated bow making technology was borrowed and used early on, and most likely came from the Eurasian nomads, known as the ‘Invaders of Europe’. But putting definite attributions and dates is problematic, because Eurasian nomads consisted of many ethnic groups and inhabited the entire region from modern day Bulgaria to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. These steppe nomads had domesticated horses from around 3500 BC and were forced to acclimatise to all types of landscape and climate, from +45C to -55C. The materials for bow making varied a lot as a result, giving a perfect opportunity for improvement and experiments in bow-making technology.
Ancient Rus’, also known as the ‘Kievan Rus’, was established in the second quarter of the 9th century by Rurik, whose dynasty would rule and expand Russia until the
RIGHT Kievan Rus' at its height, before Mongol Invasion, modern map overlay. FAR RIGHT Rarest find of a Russian hunting self bow (oak), Moscow, XVI
Tatar-mongol Invasion of 1237-1240. Russian warriors and soldiers of that time did use bows to defend their rulers, but the cavalry was as yet virtually non-existent.
Travel accounts of traders from the Far East confirm that:“if the Rus’ archers ever get on a horse, they will be truly unstoppable”. Kievan Rus’ cavalry was formed in the 10th century and quickly became the backbone of the military forces of the Russian princes and rulers. It helped them expand and guard its borders and commercial routes. At the beginning of the 11th century, at the height of Rus’ power, the territories of Kievan Rus’ stretched all the way from the White Sea to the Black Sea, positioned at the epicentre of the highly significant international fur and silver trade routes, which required a vast number of fast mounted guards. Only a handful of the finds attributed to Ancient Rus’ can be dated back as far as the third quarter of the 10th century CE. It is also clear that, thanks to interaction along the Baltic Coast, there was a significant technological, cultural and stylistic exchange between Scandinavia and the Rus’ people- the Russian Vikings. Many bows from the 16th and 17th centuries survive and can be found in museums across Russia today.
"IF A WOMAN NOTICED HER HUSBAND LOOKING AT OTHER WOMEN FOR TOO LONG, SHE WOULD PLACE THIS ARROWHEAD INTO HER HUSBAND’S PALM AS A WARNING. ”
Geography and Bow Classification
The development of the steppe composite bow from the 7th century onwards was of “continuous evolutionary character”. The nature of nomadic lifestyle was such that it invited multiple cross-culture interactions, which assisted the spreading and the exchange of goods and practices amongst the peoples. Two broader categories of the Russian nomadic composite emerge: the “Western”, also known as the “Hungarian” type, and the “Eastern”, “Pechenegian”, or “Turkic” type. The first is slightly longer and thicker in the body; if shown a plain modern replica, you would probably say it looks like a standard Mongolian or a Hungarian M- shaped bow. The second, like a Turkish horsebow, with a shorter, slimmer and flatter body.
The Hungarian group emerged from the finds at Ancient Russian towns associated with the development of the Russian elites, ‘druzhinas’- an ancient military subculture of Eastern European nomads. Staraya Ladoga and Ryurik Gorodishe near Novgorod and Kiev were amongst the most important settlements. The Turkic is associated with the Byzantine culture in the South.
Further Bow Classification
The Ancient Russian composite bows can be divided into two further geographical groups: Saltovo-khazarian and Hunno-bulgarian. However, these two terms not only refer to geography, but also to different periods. The first describes the early medieval culture of Saltovo-mayaki, peoples who lived in the steppe region between Don and Dnieper rivers, Northern Caucasus, in 700-950 CE. The second, Hunno-bulgarians, were Slavic nomads that came from: the Huns - an Altaic tribe, and the Bulgarians- from Ukranian steppes. This second group is typified by bows from 10th-11th centuries - but not exclusively. The bows may be further subdivided by their ethnic groups: Avar, Hunno-bulgarian, Khazarian, Saltovo, Hungarian, Pecheneg. Variations in shape are marginal, if any, and the main distinctive features are found in the ornament or materials used, typical to those individual cultures.
The majority of the bows had
a ‘four-bend’ shape. The main types of wood used for Russian bows were juniper, birch, ash and oak. Evidence suggests that the Asiaticstyle laminated bow making technology was borrowed and used in Eastern Europe around the 8th century, because of the use of the fish scale glue, used to bind the layers of the bow. Fish scale/bladder/bone glue was used for many centuries prior to that on all continents, so the date of the first employment in bowmaking remains a guess. To make the bow more long-lasting and resistant to humidity, it was additionally glued over with a thin layer of boiled birch bark, as well as parchment, and varnished. The Korean Gakgung was also often covered with birch bark, but the Mongolians used animal tendon instead.
Saadak
The set of the mounted archer was called a ‘saadak’ (rus. Саадак), which derives from Turkish ‘sadaq’ (m. bow case), or Mongolian ‘sagadak’ (m. bow and arrow set). The saadak consisted of: a bow, a protective bow case, a set of arrows, and a quiver (Ottoman style). The bow case was a little shorter than the braced bow. The average length of a strung Old Russian bow was 51 inches (1.3m). Very tough skins, typically of a goat or a sheep, were used for the cover. A highend levant (Moroccan leather) was also used, but it was imported via European trade routes from Persia until the 17th century. Famously used in bookbinding and shoemaking, this highly desirable leather was durable, thin, tough, pliable and took well to bright colouring. The bow was carried on the left side, the quiver on the right.
Arrow case: the Tul
‘Tul’, (‘u’ pronounced like in the Eng. ‘pull’), was the old Russian name for an arrow case. A tul was cylindrical in shape and its main body was made out of one or two layers of dense birch bark, often covered over with leather. Its average height was 60-70cm, its base was 1cm thick, and it had a cover that could be closed to protect the feathers from bad weather. Arrows were placed with the arrowheads down and to protect them from damage the following was done: diameter at the throat of a tul was made broader in relation to the diameter in the middle of the cylinder. Measurements of the middle were 8-10cm, measurements of the lower part would again be broadened- 12-15cm. This was done so that the bunch of arrow shafts stay tight, the arrowheads don’t catch, and the feathers don’t get ruffled. In the 12th century tul had become flatter, measured up to 65cm in length, 2cm thick, and could fit 20 arrows. Men would take a few of these with them to battle. In 1589, tul is replaced by a Turkish word “kolchan” and is in use today.
THE Bowstring
The bowstring demanded special attention. The string should retain its tensile strength and not change its properties under the influence of weather: it should not swell or curl when wet and should not dry out in the heat. Ancient Russian archers used a string made out of good silk and tendons, which was perfect for humid and cold climates. For warm and dry weather an “intestinal string’’ was used, but it had a tendency to stretch under damp conditions.
A string made out of rawhide was considered superior. The skin from the back of a lean camel was thicker and stronger, and was considered best. It was soaked in cold water and cut into strips slightly thicker than the intended string. The strips were then hung in a dark room. Holes were made at both ends of the strip and wooden hook-sticks were inserted. So began the process of gentle stretching and twisting of the strips. The entire length of the strip was simultaneously treated with an emery stone (used for grinding), until it could no longer stretch. It would become even and round at cross section. Finally, to protect it from water, heat, damp and cold, it was soaked in fat and yellow beeswax.
The string itself would not touch the ‘ears’ of the bow, it was tied with a takedown knot on each end, not integral with the string. Good strings were expensive and needed to be protected against wear. Russian knots were considered the best.
In case you were wondering if Russian archers protected themselves against the ‘string slap’, legends have it that the string slap was so strong, that it tore the clothing! Archers wore an armguard to protect the bow arm wrist- a palm
sized, oval-shaped plate made out of animal bone or moose antler.
Arrows
Arrow shafts had to be perfectly straight, strong and not too heavy. Until the 16th-17th century, straight-grain types of wood such as birch, spruce and pine were sourced. After that, apple tree, reed, cypress and cedar woods were also added. Arrow wood harvesting took place in late autumn and winter, when it contained less moisture. Preference was given to old trees, because the wood was denser and stronger. It was dried for several months and underwent multiple stages of knife-shaping and sanding, until the desired smooth arrow shaft, 8-10mm in diameter, was achieved. A special ‘knife plough’ was used on the entire length of the arrow to keep it uniform. The typical length of the arrow was 75-90cm (29.5- 35.4 inches), and the weight around 50 grams. The base of the living tree trunk, nearer to the root flare, was considered stronger, so the arrow nock was attached at that end of the arrow shaft. Nocks were sometimes cut right into the shaft, but most often they were cut out of an animal bone and attached with fish glue. Some were like the modern Easton pin nocks, some like the G-nocks.
The feathers would be symmetrically positioned along the circumference of the shaft. Two or three feathers were typically attached, but up to six feathers could be used on one arrow. The fairly elastic, medium-hard feathers of the eagle, vulture, falcon and various seabirds were preferred. They were best because they were consistent in length and width and bent to one side, which assists the arrow spin during flight. The average feather length was between 6-10cm (2.3- 3.9 inches).
Arrowheads were many, and each served a particular function: 106 metal and 8 bone types were discovered in just the Kazan’ region alone. One archer could have different types in his quiver, so the nock and part of the shaft was painted in a distinguishing colour. For example, one type of arrowhead known as ‘srezni’ (rus. – резать, meaning ‘to cut’) had a broad cutting blade, designed for hunting a big animal, or slicing through armour. Another was called ‘tomars arrow’ (rus. “томары стрельные”). This was blunt and was used in hunting fur animals, the arrow being designed to penetrate the valuable fur without leaving it bloody. But perhaps most legendary of all was the arrowhead which came from the steppe peoples of Kazan, known as ‘mstyul’ka’ (rus. ”мстюлька”, from ‘мстить’,
Feather shapes, positions, XVII
meaning ‘to avenge’). If a woman noticed her husband looking at other women for too long, she would place this arrowhead into her husband’s palm as a warning. If he continued to overstep his boundaries, such an arrowhead could hit him in the back.
Bow Use
The shooting range of these bows was said to be 'up to 300 steps', and when shot from horseback 50-60 steps could be added to that. Russian composite bows were renowned for their high poundage of 110-177lbs! As for technique, it is believed that a mixture of different ways of hooking and drawing was used, the arrow was most often positioned on the right side of the bow. Depending on circumstances, the following methods were used: Mediterranean style, both Turkish and Mongolian style thumb ring, and the Slavic release. The latter was used for speed shooting on horseback. The little, ring, and middle fingers were used to hook the string, and sat under the arrow. The index finger secured the arrow in place, while the thumb clutched a bunch of arrows by their nocks, allowing for rapid reloading, and ‘showering’ arrows on the enemy. Some legends claim that, by the age of twenty, a Russian archer would be so proficient, that he could scratch the ear of a night watch with a poisoned arrow, and thus enter a city unchallenged. A perfect spy? I think so.