GATHERING EVIDENCE OF DISEASE & DISASTER
Wayne Shepheard takes an analytical look at some familiar records to see what else they might reveal about our ancestors’ lives; in particular to determine what and how certain natural events affected people and communities in the past, in order to tell a
Using parish & other records to determine how climate and epidemics impacted our ancestors’ lives
Natural phenomena have significantly affected the lives and livelihoods of our ancestors. Such events, in many instances, were important in influencing decisions to relocate, perhaps even as much as factors like religious persecution, cultural differences, economics, poverty, land ownership restrictions, war or politics.
Major sources of information
Finding information that demonstrates what events occurred and how they impacted people and communities is an important part of constructing complete family histories. Following are some of the major sources of such information.
Family stories
Some people are fortunate to have had parents or grandparents recount their life experiences. Mother Nature may have been involved in some of these stories, imposing her wrath to the extent people lost homes or livelihoods, were injured or killed, or decided to move.
While older relatives are alive it is of value to ask them questions with respect to natural events:
• Did any family members witness physical changes to their habitat?
• Did anyone have to move from their place of birth because of those changes?
• Did anyone change occupations?
• Was anyone injured or killed?
Parish & church records
Parish or church registers are obviously important sources of information about people, particularly from the pre-19th century. They contain the basic data about individuals – births, marriages and deaths (BMD). It is important to go beyond just looking for people and dates, though. In combination with other types of records, registers can yield valuable information about the environments and habitats in which ancestors lived.
• Long-term data
Using BMD register entries recorded over long time periods allows analyses to be made of any trends that may have been related to natural events.
The graph in Figure 1 was produced from the total yearly BMD entries in the Plympton St. Mary and Plympton St. Maurice parishes in Devon, England. On the plot, a few observations can be made with respect to long-term trends and their relationship to various types of events:
1603 to 1667 – baptisms outnumbered burials indicating the parishes were doing reasonably well during the early 17th century which may reflect favourable weather and growing conditions and population growth.
1667 to 1790 – baptisms just kept pace with burials, although there were several years when burials outnumbered baptisms. This period was coincident with some of the colder years of the Little Ice Age when living conditions were harsh. We might suspect famine was common resulting in higher than normal deaths and fewer births.
1790 to 1874 – baptisms significantly exceeded burials and the population was obviously growing again and the economy was beginning to prosper (Shepheard, 2018a).
After 1874 – both baptisms and burials declined which may be due to the weakening in the influence of the Church, rather than any specific natural or political events.
• Short-term events
Death and burial records are particularly useful to show whether short-term events may have impacted areas: wars, famines, floods or diseases. Sharp peaks in burial numbers on the graph in Figure 1 represent specific events that could be related to conflicts or natural phenomena:
1625-26 – A search of the Plymouth and Southwest Devon Record Office archives catalogue indicated plague was experienced in the area from 1625 to 1627 which probably accounted for the large number of burials.
1643-50 – These years encompass the time of the English Civil War. Many soldiers were buried in the parishes. This spike is mainly from that military conflict.
1654 – This peak in marriages occurred during the Interregnum (1649-1660) when marriages were mandated to be officiated at civil ceremonies in various market towns like Plympton. Residents from parishes all around the area came to the town to get married resulting in a greater than average number of recorded unions.
1689 – A form of typhus called ‘spotted fever’ invaded the parishes of Southwest Devon in this year. This was during the Glorious Revolution, when William of Orange took the English throne from James II. The disease was brought to Plymouth from battlefields in Ireland and spread rapidly through the military and civilian populations (Shepheard & Tucker, 2016). The peaks in burial numbers for several parishes in the Plymouth area show the effect of the disease (Figure 2).
1741 – The peak of the Great Frost and Famine occurred during this year which affected all parts of Europe and the British Isles (Shepheard, 2019).
1832 – Cholera attacked the Plympton area in this year. Over 200 persons were infected of whom 67 died.
• Parish register notes
Occasionally there will be notes about certain events written into the parish registers or appended to them, some about physical changes to lands within the parishes. Indexes or transcriptions will not likely have these extra notes, so a review of the originals or copies of originals is necessary.
Figure 3 shows 1825-26 entries in the baptism register of Kilnsea parish in East Yorkshire. The Vicar included a handwritten note at the bottom of the page: ‘1826 August 3rd – Memd: The Church of Kilnsea fell down the cliff into the Sea; and devine service was from that time performed in the house belonging to Robt. Medforth Junr. The marriages and Burials were performed in the Parish of Easington’. The note gives information about the state of the church at the time and about one of the parishioners. Robert Medforth later lost his own farm when the sea encroached further on the coastline.
• Academic studies using parish records
Sometimes parish register entries show a noticeable increase in deaths along with a decline in births, but with no reports of diseases. An analysis of 27 parishes in the English counties of Cumberland, Lancashire, Westmorland and West Yorkshire showed infant mortality increased an average of 130% during 1623 compared to the preceding decade (Scott & Duncan, 1997). For Penrith parish alone, it was 230% higher (Figure 4).
The northern areas of Cumberland had the highest burial (death) rates. Adult/child ratios were halved meaning more children died than was normal. Baptisms (births) also fell by almost 40%. There were similar changes in baptisms and burials across a broader area and encompassing both small rural areas and large market centres. The higher than normal burial numbers across a wide area, among other factors, strongly suggested famine as the main cause of deaths.
Census records
Census records provide information about families and their places of birth and residences, primarily from the mid-1800s. Most census records are now online.
For most regions in the British Isles the detailed records start with the census taken in 1841 and run through 1911. Canadian censuses can be found from 1825 to 1921 and US Census data from 1790 to 1940. There is no census data for Australia prior to the 20th century.
Census data can allow tracking and timing of any relocation of families. The migration history of people may have been related to physical hardships encountered and an inability to earn a living or obtain enough food. Correlating the changes in habitation with other records may help to explain why people moved.
The census record in Figure 5 has detail about the individuals’ place of birth, place of parents’ birth, and year of immigration to Canada. From this data we may be able to piece together when and whether there were any events which may have caused the people to move. These could have been societal, political or natural, but the areas and dates give us a reason to look and a place and time to start.
Admittedly, this kind of information is more likely to be found on censuses of Canada or the United States where people immigrated. But United Kingdom and other national censuses may also offer data from birth places recorded about people who have moved from another country, or from county to county. One might then ask the questions:
• What prompted them to move from their ancestral homes?
• Were individuals just looking for adventure or did some disaster happen?
Maps
Maps are useful in showing whether families lived in areas subject to physical
change, such as along major rivers or coastlines. There is a great range of map data now available, much of it, again, online. The reconstruction of land boundaries is important to the family historian as it allows a more complete picture of the physical environment in which ancestors lived.
Detailed survey maps, updated over time, are indispensable for seeing how geographic features changed. Comparing ancient maps, however inaccurate they may be, with modern versions can illustrate whether communities have grown or disappeared. Old weather maps or reconstructions might show when or if areas were subject to severe weather.
• Meandering rivers
Rivers constantly migrate across floodplains. During the process, lands adjacent to river channels can be flooded, removed or added to. Over time a succession of point bar deposits is built up, each new series intersecting old ones.
A series of detailed maps was produced by geologist Harold Fisk in 1944 for the Mississippi River Commission, USA, to, among other things: ‘ascertain the nature and origin of the Alluvial Valley of the Lower Mississippi River and to determine the sequence of events in valley evolution. . .’.
Figure 6 shows the detail of point bars formed during several hundred years near the town of New Madrid, Missouri, USA. In this region, the river shifted course when a major series of earthquakes occurred in 1811-12 (Shepheard, 2019b). The old town of New Madrid was completely inundated.
Projects like this illustrate how areas can change over time. River shifting in floodplains can result in changes to political boundaries, as well as for privately-owned lands. Such changes may result in documents being produced by different authorities.
• Eroding coastlines
Erosion around the edges of seas and oceans primarily from wave action is common and ongoing. Examples of lost land can be found around the world. A notable example is the eastern side of the Holderness Peninsula in East Yorkshire, England. Maps produced over centuries, along with scientific and historical studies, document the loss of land and the effects on people and communities (Sheppard, 1912; Shepheard, 2018c).
Since Roman times the Holderness shoreline has shifted two to three miles to the west. Over 55,000 acres of farmland were eradicated along with over 30 villages (Figure 7).
Statistical data
Various types of statistical data can suggest what physical conditions may have existed for any time period. For example, significant reductions in population may indicate mass deaths from disease or disaster. Upward changes in the prices of commodities may indicate there were shortages possibly due to drought.
• Weather & climate data
Until the early 18th century, most people were engaged in agricultural activities, so the health of crops and the size of harvests were important (Shepheard, 2019a). Temperature and precipitation are, of course, major controlling factors in the size and quality of crops.
The United Kingdom has weather records that go back hundred of years. Figure 8 tracks the annual precipitation of England and Wales over 2.5 centuries and readily shows what times could have been characterised by deluge or drought.
Conditions may have been different from area to area or region to region in which case causes specific to those areas should be determined. Birth and death numbers, as is shown in Figure 1, may tell a tale of hardship or plenty during specific time periods possibly related to agricultural results.
Summary statistical information includes compilations of certain types of events like storms, floods, earthquakes, etc. Grain prices reflect times of abundances and shortages. Poor harvests and resultant higher prices can be due to weather.
• Sources of data
Government offices, such as the Met Office, the United Kingdom’s national weather service, have substantial information online from across the country. Rainfall, temperature and other data are available in table (spreadsheet) form, in graphs and in written reports. Data can be looked at by year, month or broken down by season. From these historical presentations one can view any trends that might exist or specific periods of rapid change indicating environmental events: • Met Office Digital Library &
Archive https://digital.nmla.metoffice.gov. uk/?s=archives
• General climate
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/ research/climate/maps-and-data/ summaries/index
• Precipitation
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/ hadobs/hadukp/
• Temperature
https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/ hadobs/hadcet/
The National Centers for Environmental Information, part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is the repository for data concerning the climate and weather, as well as a myriad of other subjects, for the United States. A substantial amount of data is available for past centuries. They also have datasets and studies for the entire world. https:// www.ncdc.noaa.gov/data-access/ paleoclimatology-data/datasets
Historical weather data can be searched for Canada on the Government of Canada Weather, climate and hazards website. Data is searchable by station name, province or area, but the coverage by region and year is not as complete as for the United Kingdom and the United States. https://climate.weather.gc.ca/ historical_data/search_historic_ data_e.html
For Australia, the Bureau of Meteorology holds all climate and weather data, organized under the dataset: Australian Climate
Observations Reference Network – Surface Air Temperature. Most data do not go back further than 1900, but major efforts are underway to digitize and analyze journals and ships logs back to the 18th century. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/ change/acorn-sat/
Other countries around the world will have historical data for climate, population, agriculture, etc. Family historians should seek out this kind of information to discover under what kinds of environmental conditions their ancestors may have been impacted.
There are many published summaries of natural events like earthquakes, storms, floods, etc. that have occurred over the centuries, available at libraries or for purchase. Some are very recent compilations; some are books printed decades ago; many are digitized and online. Information may come from independent researchers or historians or put out by professional associations and government agencies.
Newspapers & periodicals
Newspapers and periodicals offer timely reports about how different types of natural events affected communities and people. They may contain first-hand stories from survivors or victims. Names of rescuers, landowners, farmers, businessmen and local officials involved in repair or clean-up may also have been reported.
Where better to go for reports on disasters such as earthquakes than websites where old newspapers are digitized (Figure 9). Filtering down to dates and areas and sorting through many instances where the keywords are from advertisements may be necessary to get to data pertinent to a study.
Some websites where information about newspaper sources can be found or specific news reports might be searched include:
• Ancestry www.ancestry.com/search/ categories/np_newspapers/
• British Library www.bl.uk/ collection-guides/newspapers
• Findmypast https://search. findmypast.com/search/britishnewspapers
• Library and Archives Canada
www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/ newspapers/pages/newspapers.aspx
• Library of Congress (USA) – Chronicling America https:// chroniclingamerica.loc.gov
• National Library of Australia – Trove https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/
• The British Newspaper Archive https://www. britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk
• Thegenealogist www. thegenealogist.co.uk
• The National Archives (UK) www. nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-withyour-research/research-guides/ newspapers/
A great many local and regional websites have digital copies of old newspapers or list sites that may be of interest. One might also consult foreign-language and other ethnic newspapers, religious newspapers and school newspapers. Some will be in the collections shown above; others may be in regional archives or on other websites.
Historical & scientific books & publications
Summaries of the history of regions are invaluable in describing living conditions, political situations, societal constraints and the environment. Books and articles written by historians, scientists, archaeologists, economists and others offer valuable information about past communities and natural phenomena (Figure 10).
Journals and diaries, both published and unpublished, may have information about the areas in which the authors lived. Included in this category are ships logs. Any of them may contain information about the habitats of ancestors and are worth searching out
Artwork from past decades and centuries that depict natural conditions or record natural events might also be of interest. Literature from the times, fiction and nonfiction, will also shed light on living conditions.
Scientific studies
Scientific research reports often contain relevant information about the natural habitat and environmental changes. These studies are generally reviewed only by scientists or specialists involved in the disciplines. Genealogists may find books and published articles through a general Internet search using area names, dates and/or event descriptions concerning whether land was lost, or if weather and climate conditions forced people away from their homes. A broad search brush is required in seeking information as research is often concerned with regional or national parameters and events that occurred over long periods of time.
A good example of melding history with scientific research is in a study of the coastal area offshore of Dunwich, Suffolk, England. The 2007-08 project was successful in evaluating the potential of integrated multibeam and sub-bottom sonar profiling in visualizing and locating buried structures associated with the old townsite (Figure 11).
Dunwich was an active port as far back as the Anglo-saxon period. Since the beginning of the Little Ice Age (14th century), coastal erosion has resulted in the shoreline being moved back over a mile, entirely destroying the old town.
The Internet
Information about natural disasters, particularly as they pertain to family history is available on a variety of websites. One might explore online sources for genealogy and natural disasters, using many different search engines, and see what comes up. Many events listed may be man-made such as bridge collapses or auto accidents, but there will also be a substantial number caused by Mother Nature and applicable to family history.
A Google search for ‘genealogy, natural disasters, 17th century, England’ got 3,650,000 hits (Figure 12). Among the references were general information sites, newspaper references, commentary from bloggers and others, professional reports and articles (many available for direct download), books, indexes, etc.
Being more selective in the search description is necessary to get down to a manageable number for review. For example, substituting ‘earthquakes’ for ‘natural disasters’ resulted in 1,930,000 hits. Repeating the searches at different times may result in additional hits since more studies or commentary is constantly being added.
Along with general Internet searches, one should always keep in mind the various regional and national record offices. Many of the documents contained in these archives have been indexed and at least their general contents descriptions can be found through keyword searches.
There are few genealogical websites that also contain information about natural and man-made disasters. Two such sites are:
• Cyndi’s List
www.cyndislist.com/disasters/
• Gendisasters.com
http://www.gendisasters.com
No site will contain all the
information about an area, type of event or date, so many different searches using a variety of parameters will be necessary to find the broadest range of reference information. In short, searches that combine genealogy, natural events, areas and subjects in which you are interested, and dates that are relevant to family history stories will achieve the best results.
Summary
Data and reports from a variety of sources should be sought and compared to get a better idea of how people lived and what may have impacted their existence. Records covering long time periods will illustrate how physical changes to habitat or the environment manifested themselves and what impact they had on communities and people.
About the author
Wayne Shepheard is the author of ‘Surviving Mother Nature’s Tests: the effects of climate change and other natural phenomena have had on the lives of our ancestors (with examples from the British Isles)’ (2018). https:// mothernaturestests.blogspot.com