The Battle of Marston Moor
Mark Simner examines the first major Royalist defeat of the English Civil Wars
The Battle of Marston Moor, fought on 2 July 1644, is thought to be the largest battle ever fought on British soil. Five armies took part, including two Royalist and three Allied (Parliamentarian and Covenanters). Mark Simner reports.
The Battle of Marston Moor, fought on 2 July 1644, is thought to be the largest battle fought on British soil. Five armies took part, including two Royalist and three Allied (Parliamentarian and Covenanters). It ended in the first major defeat for the Royalists during the English Civil Wars, the Royalists effectively losing control of northern England.
As the Civil War entered its third year in 1644, Charles I had reason for optimism. In the south the Parliamentarian army led by Sir William Waller had been heavily defeated at the Battle of Roundway Down in July 1643, and two weeks later Prince Rupert had accepted the surrender of Bristol. However, not all had gone well for the King. The siege of Gloucester was abandoned after Parliamentarian forces under the Earl of Essex marched to the city’s relief in September. Also, that month Charles suffered defeat at the First Battle of Newbury.
The situation in the north was more favourable. In June 1643, a Royalist army under the Marquis of Newcastle defeated Lord Fairfax’s Parliamentarians at the Battle of Adwalton Moor near Bradford. Fairfax withdrew to Hull, which Newcastle besieged. Sir Thomas Fairfax, son of Lord Fairfax, was similarly forced to withdraw into East Anglia, but the Royalists suffered defeats at the hands of Oliver Cromwell at the battles of Gainsborough and Winceby, fought in July and October. Nevertheless, an end to hostilities in Ireland late in the year allowed Charles to redeploy significant forces to England.
Unfortunately for Charles, Parliament signed the Solemn League and Covenant with the Scottish Covenanters in September. Thus, early the following year, the Covenanters entered the fray
when their troops under the Earl of Leven crossed the border into northern England. This forced Newcastle to split his force besieging Hull and march to meet the Covenanters.
As Newcastle clashed with Leven, Sir Thomas led his army into West Riding of Yorkshire. Concerned he was intending to march to join his father at Hull,
Sir John Belasyse, who Newcastle had left with a detachment to watch Hull, moved to block Sir Thomas by taking up positions at Shelby. Nevertheless, Sir Thomas, now joined by the army of Sir John Meldrum, successfully assaulted the town on 11 April.
Newcastle now faced a serious problem, for he knew York, the centre of Royalist power in the north, was at risk. He decided to disengage from Leven and withdrew to the city. Leven then marched to join Lord Fairfax and his son, and on 22 April they began the siege of York.
Siege of York
In early June, Leven and the Fairfaxes were reinforced by the army of the Earl of Manchester. It was agreed that Leven, who commanded the largest of the three armies besieging York, should command. However, it would not be long before news of the siege reached the ears of Charles at Oxford, who appointed Prince Rupert of the Rhine to lead a relief force.
Rupert’s campaign to relieve York commenced in mid-May. Departing from Shrewsbury, his initial force was modest, but his intention was to gather additional men on the march. His advance saw him crossing the River Mersey and defeating Alexander Rigby’s Parliamentarians at the Storming of Bolton on the 28th. Rupert then joined with Royalist cavalry under Lord George Goring, who had earlier managed to break out of York, and was later reinforced by the Earl of Derby.
Continuing his advance, Rupert bypassed Parliamentarian Manchester, making a move on Liverpool. The city fell in June after a five-day siege. Yet despite his successes, Rupert now hesitated about the next move.
Rupert’s decision
Since Rupert’s departure, Charles had been forced to abandon Oxford and head for Worcester. The King hastily wrote Rupert a dispatch, an ambiguous document saying: ‘But now I must give you the true state of my affairs, which if their condition be such as enforces me to give you more peremptory commands than I would willingly do, you must not take it ill. If York be lost I shall esteem my crown little less; unless supported by your sudden march to me; and a miraculous conquest in the South, before the effects of their Northern power can be found here. But if York be relieved, and you beat the rebels’ army of both kingdoms which are before it; then
(but otherwise not) I may make a shift (upon the defensive) to spin out time until you come to assist me. Wherefore I command and conjure you, by the duty and affection which I know you bear me, that all new enterprises laid aside, you immediately march, according to your first intention, with all your force to the relief of York. But if that be either lost, or have freed themselves from the besiegers, or that, from want of powder, you cannot undertake that work, that you immediately march with your whole strength, directly to Worcester, to assist me and my army; without which, or you having relieved York by beating the Scots, all the successes you can afterwards have must infallibly be useless unto me. You may believe that nothing but an extreme necessity could make me write thus unto you; wherefore, in this case, I can no ways doubt of your punctual compliance with.’
Some argue the dispatch, received around 19 June, was one of information rather than direct instruction, and that there is little to suggest the King intended him to fight a battle after York’s relief. Nevertheless, Rupert interpreted it as an order to not only relieve York but also defeat the Allied armies.
Relief of York
With an army of 15,000 men, Rupert began his final advance on York. Leaving Liverpool soon after receiving the King’s dispatch, he crossed the Pennines and arrived at Skipton Castle on 26 June, where he halted for several days. On the 29th, he advanced to Denton Hall near Ilkley, reaching Knaresborough the
following day.
Rupert was now only 14 miles from York but knew his army was heavily outnumbered by the combined Scottish and Parliamentarian armies. His plan was to join with Newcastle’s army currently at York before seeking battle. On the 30th, Rupert dispatched a force of cavalry eastwards from Knaresborough in the hope of giving the impression he was making a direct advance on York. This movement was detected by the Parliamentary leaders, who moved to block his advance by concentrating their armies at Marston Moor.
The feint appearing to be working, Rupert marched the bulk of his army north-east in what would be a 22 mile flanking manoeuvre, crossing the River Ure at Boroughbridge on 1 July. He then crossed the Swale at Thornton Bridge before marching on York from the north. The final crossing to the city was made on the same day, when Rupert’s army drove off enemy dragoons guarding a boat bridge over the River Ouse at Poppleton. Having fooled his enemy, Rupert lifted the siege of York. However, he still had his battle to fight.
The lines are drawn
The Parliamentary Alliance army took up positions between Long Marston and
Tockwith on the lower northern slopes of Marston Hill. On the left were cavalrymen of Oliver Cromwell, the first and second lines formed by 3,000 horsemen of the Eastern Association, while the third consisted of 1,000 Covenanter horsemen under Sir David Leslie. Over on the extreme left were Hugh Fraser’s 500 Scottish dragoons.
In the centre were 11,000 footmen formed into four lines and supported by artillery. The first line consisted of English soldiers under Lawrence Crawford and the Scots by William Baillie. James Lumsden’s four Scottish brigades formed the second line, while the third was made up of the brigades of Lord Fairfax and the Earl of Manchester. The fourth was formed by a Scottish brigade as reserve.
Finally, over on the right of the
Alliance position were 5,000 cavalrymen and musketeers of Lord Fairfax’s army, which formed three lines. The first was commanded by Sir Thomas Fairfax, the second by John Lambert, and the third by Lord Eglinton’s Scottish regiments.
The Royalist army similarly deployed. Opposite Cromwell’s cavalry were Lord Byron’s 2,500 horse and 500 musketeers formed in two lines. The first commanded by Byron himself while the second came under Lord Molyneux. Over to the extreme right Rupert posted Sir Samuel Tuke’s regiment.
The centre of the Royalist position consisted of 10,000 foot, again formed in three lines. The first commanded by Henry Tillier, the second and third formed by Newcastle’s infantry, who joined Rupert late in the afternoon. The centre was reinforced by several cavalry brigades, including those of Sir William Blakiston and Sir Edward Widdrington. In reserve was Rupert’s Lifeguard of Horse on Widdrington’s right.
Finally, on the left wing were George Goring’s 2,100 horsemen and 500 musketeers. Again, formed into two lines, the first under Sir Charles Lucas and the second under Sir Marmaduke Langdale. Francis Carnaby was placed with a regiment on the extreme left.
The battle begins
Lord Eythin and his garrison army from York were late to arrive. He was also openly critical of Rupert’s plans. Newcastle supported Eythin when the latter complained the day was too old to commence battle. Rupert reluctantly agreed to delay until the following day, saying to Newcastle, “We’ll charge them in the morning,” as he departed for dinner. Meanwhile, the Parliamentary army launched an unexpected assault just as a thunderstorm broke over the battlefield at 7.30pm.
Cromwell’s Ironsides, over on the Allied left flank, advanced towards a drainage ditch dividing the opposing sides. Along this ditch Rupert had deployed musketeers, hoping they would disrupt just such an advance. Byron is said to have been told to hold his position, but he disobeyed orders, conducting his own charge to meet Cromwell’s, which prevented the musketeers from firing through fear of hitting their own men.
Parliamentarian Scoutmaster-General Lionel Watson recalled what happened next: ‘Cromwell’s own division had a hard pull of it: for they were charged by Ruperts bravest men, both in Front and Flank: they stood at the swords point a pretty while, hacking one another: but at last (it so pleased God) he brake through them, scattering them before him like a little dust.’
Nevertheless, Molyneux’s second line held while Rupert, who upon hearing the commencement of battle jumped into saddle and charged headlong into the fray, ordered up reinforcements. During the melee Cromwell was wounded and briefly left the field for medical attention. Meanwhile, Leslie moved up with his Scottish reserves and attacked the Royalists in flank, a move that resulted in the Royalist cavalry on the right being routed. Rupert was now vulnerable; having become separated from his Lifeguard of Horse he was forced to hide to prevent his own capture.
Not everything was going right for the Parliament armies. On the other side of the battlefield the cavalry of
Sir Thomas Fairfax had come under withering fire from Goring’s musketeers as they clambered their way across the ditch. Goring ordered his own cavalry to charge, routing Fairfax’s first line and inflicting heavy casualties. Although Lambert had initially been deployed behind Fairfax he had been redeployed elsewhere, leaving Fairfax unsupported.
As the fighting continued on the Parliament right-flank, Eglinton’s Scottish reserve steadfastly held its ground until Sir Marmaduke Langdale and the Northern Horse charged into their positions and routed them. The Royalist cavalry then charged on over Marston Hill and attacked the Parliamentary baggage train, while others led by Lucas attacked the flank of the Parliament infantry. Suddenly, Sir Thomas Fairfax found himself surrounded by Royalist cavalry, having to desperately fight his way to safety before joining Cromwell.
The infantry of the Parliament centre was also advancing. The weight of their number forced Rupert’s musketeers to abandon the ditch. Watson again recalled: ‘All the Earle of Manchesters Foot being three Brigades, began the charge with their bodies against the Marquess of Newcastle, and Prince Rupert’s bravest Foot. In a moment we were passed the ditch into the Moore, upon equall grounds with the enemy, our men going in a running march.’
Infantrymen on both sides became engaged in a savage exchange of fire. Simeon Ashe, a chaplain with the Earl of Manchester’s army, recalled: ‘Upon the advancing of the Earle of Manchesters Foote, after short firings on both sides, wee caused the enemy to quit the hedge
in a disorderly manner, where they left behind them foure Drakes. The Lord Fairfax his Brigade on our right hand did also beat off the Enemy from the hedges, driving them from their Canon.’
Eythin ordered a counterattack, the second line of Royalist infantry surging forward through their battered frontline, throwing the Parliament infantry backwards. The counterattack came as a shock to Lord Fairfax’s brigade and some of the Scottish regiments, which according to Ashe: ‘Furiously assaulted, did make a retreat in some disorder.’
This caused panic amongst men of the Scottish brigades in the Allied second line, who also began to crumble.
Seemingly the battle was lost for the Allies. Fairfax and Leven began to flee the field, but Manchester rallied 500 infantrymen and returned to the fight. Fortunately for the Parliamentary forces, the Scottish regiments of the Earl of Lindsay and Lord Maitland stood their ground and averted disaster. As the Scots repelled Royalist cavalry attacks, Sir James Lumsden reformed the Alliance second line and the situation began to stabilise.
Cromwell, who had initially been unaware of the unfolding disaster, raced over to the other flank of the
Allied line to lead his cavalry in another charge. Facing him were Goring and Langdale, who, sensing the coming attack, formed up their men in readiness. However, Goring was by now positioned on the same ground that had earlier proved disadvantageous to Fairfax, his outnumbered troops soon driven off by Cromwell’s assault.
A victorious Cromwell had defeated Royalist cavalry on both flanks, leaving the centre exposed. He now joined Manchester as the Parliamentary infantry commenced its final advance. Rupert’s line collapsed, and his men fled the field. Newcastle’s regiment of Whitecoats attempted to make a stand at White Syke Close but they were overwhelmed by Cromwell’s cavalry.
The aftermath
The Royalists had been defeated in less than two hours. Rupert and his forces fell back to York. Over 4,000 Royalists were killed and another 1,500 made prisoner. They also lost their guns and much ordnance, including 130 barrels of powder, as well as 100 regimental colours. Parliamentary casualties were a mere 300 killed.
Ashe described the horror of the battle’s aftermath: ‘That night we kept the field, when the Bodies of the dead were stripped. In the morning, the naked bodies of thousands lay upon the ground, and many not altogether dead.’
Sir Henry Slingsby, who commanded a regiment at York, described the subsequent departure of Rupert from the city: ‘The Prince marched out the next morning with the remaining horse, and as many footmen as he could horse, leaving the rest in York. Thus were we left at York out of all hope of relief, the town much distracted.’ Two weeks later York surrendered. Royalist power in northern England had come to an end.