English Civil War arms and armour
Graham Priest takes a look at the equipment used in the field on both sides in the battle between Crown and Parliament
Graham Priest takes a look at the equipment used in the field on both sides in the battle between Crown and Parliament. The main items were firearms (musket, carbine and pistol), edged weapons (sword, pike, bill) and body protection (armour and leather gear).
The three conflicts that saw in-fighting between Crown and Parliament, Catholic and Protestant and individual family members ravaged the British
Isles for nine years. As a civil war, old weapons and equipment were utilised on both sides. In three separate periods (1642-46, 1648 and 1649-51) Royalist or Parliamentarian quartermasters gathered up any national sources of arms and armour in their areas plus private donations. So it was that all combatants largely used identical matériel. Some troops had served in European conflicts so had modern arms but there was no integrated supply system to provide for a national standing army. The
King’s personal regiments or
London’s Trained Bands had a commissariat for military goods but militia armouries were largely outmoded. Foreign importations from Holland and
France were feasible as long as money was available and ports were controlled.
The main products required were firearms (musket, carbine and pistol), edged weapons
(sword, pike, bill etc) and body protection (armour and leather gear); together with ammunition and transport.
The musket (arquebus) with matchlock ignition was the primary infantry weapon. The mid-17th century was on the cusp of ballistic innovations so the firelock was beginning to make inroads, but its higher price of
14 shillings (s) and 6 pence (d) compared to the 10s matchlock was a consideration. Both designs were fully stocked to the muzzle and had fishtail butts. Some
61in (1.56m) overall with 46in
(1.17m) barrels and a weight of
16lb (7.25kg) they were very cumbersome. The 0.75in (19mm) calibre spherical ball only had an effective range of 80-90yd (75-80m). The matchlock was muzzle loaded, with a rear touch hole and covered pan; had a hinged serpentine (with clamp) for a burning slow-match and a sear and trigger mechanism in the lock. The harquebusier (musketeer) had to keep his match glowing even when handling the black powder so rigorous loading sequences were required. To discharge the primed pan had to be uncovered manually and the match lowered into it by the squeeze of a sear lever or guarded trigger.
The flintlock was more reliable.
The English-lock was longer than the matchlock due to its extra components. There were European types as well. To dispense with a glowing match was a big advantage, especially adjacent to artillery or gunpowder supplies or in an attempt at concealment. A knapped flint was screwed into a pivoted cock that was released towards the pan by the trigger mechanism. Internal linkage opened the cover and the flint created sparks from a hinged, roughened steel on its downward journey. Dimensions and range were much as before.
Cavalry had problems with matchlocks on horse-back so carried scaled-down carbines or pistols with flint or wheellock mechanisms. The former weapons were more favoured by royalists. The 24in or 30in (613-766mm) barrelled carbines tended to be 0.58in (14.7mm) calibre and cost around £1-2s-0d or £1-16s0d each. The more pricy wheellock mechanism also required a flint-fitted cock but this was arranged to close in the opposite direction to the English-lock. A serrated steel wheel, adjacent to the touch-hole, was activated by
clockwork so had to be wound up prior to use. The trigger system spun the wheel simultaneously with the fall of the cock and collision with the flint, so sparks were generated and the main charge fired.
Mounted troops usually bore pairs of pistols in saddle holsters. Barrel dimensions varied from 15-18in (383460mm) with overall lengths c. 26in (664mm). Ammunition matched the carbines as did the choice of mechanisms. Many flint pistols employed a safety-catch on the lock termed a 'dog'. The cost of parliamentarian flint pistol pairs dropped from £1-8s-0d to 18s by 1646, whereas Dutch versions (wheellocks?) cost royalists £2-11-0d at the same time.
Virtually every individual carried a sword as a sidearm; from the obscure tuck, cheap munition-quality pattern styles, through a variety of broad bladed types with complex hilts (classified as proto-mortuary, mortuary and basket) to hunting hangers and stabbing rapiers. Few regiments carried uniform models although some examples from the 1630s, engraved 'FOR THE TOWER', suggested that standardisation was underway.
From 1642 onwards London cutlers manufactured as many swords as possible at 7s-6d for ordinary models and 10s for horsemens’ designs. Apart from the nature of the blade, that had to be designed to either slash or thrust and give the appropriate reach, the construction of the hilt needed to enhance grip and adequate hand protection. Cavalry weapons were longer to strike from horseback and rear-echelon troops only required basic examples for self-defence.
Most front-line infantry had a utilitarian straight bladed, doubleedged sword furnished with a variety of hilt styles from simple cross-quillon arrangements without knuckle protection, to double shell-guards or multiple handbars. Blade lengths varied but were in the 30in (766mm) range. Central or offset, single or double fullers abounded. Basic leather grips might be wire bound with some simple decoration added to the guards or knuckle bars. Typical designs (some pattern examples) had shellguards with a short rear quillon and twin steel bows at right angles to each other connected to the pommel. The thickened guard near the cutting edge was bifurcated and scrolled.
Cavalry used a longer version of the pattern sword with a more solid guard. These cost 4s-8d with a belts in 1645. Now termed proto-mortuary swords, they had straight, c. 34in (868mm), symmetrical tipped, double-edged fullered blades. Shell-guards were enlarged and curved over the grip and a thickened central knuckle-bow protected more of the hand.
The mortuary sword was a more elaborate multi-barred version of the above. It was half basket-hilted with a straight, double-edged blade of similar dimensions to the previous type. The (often) pierced basket was a combined shell-guard and knuckle bow with twin additional scroll branched side-bars. All were bolted to a baluster pommel. Chased geometric and floral ornamentation or human images were common. A wire bound leather or fish skin grip aided purchase. The title was linked to engraved images of King Charles I on some, thought to mark his execution in 1649, but in reality issue had predated this time.
Basket-hilted arms were similar to mortuary swords with a triple arrangement of interconnected bars. Symmetrical protection centred on
the absent knuckle-bow. Side-arms with sets of three scrolled branches filled the gaps to enclose the hand.
The usual wire-bound grips and heavy pommels remained.
The elite sometimes used a privately purchased swept or cupped hilt rapier (epée rapière). Usually forged with a 3941in (996mm-1.05m) straight narrow blade, some 0.98in (25mm) wide, they used a complex guard that enclosed the ricasso before straight or curved quillons. A pair of rings (pas d'ane), forward and at right angles to the latter, protected the thumb and forefinger needed to grip the blade and give the flexible wrist movements for a system of fence. The blunted ricasso, thickened forte (with grooves) and double edged, central fullered debole led to a symmetrical point. Although sharp edged, the sword was a thrusting weapon. A knuckle-bow and other elegantly shaped bars connected with the pas d'ane to cage the full hand. A large ovate pommel provided a counterweight to the blade. Often defensive bars were merged together or replaced by a concave bowl forward of the ricasso. This was sometimes pierced in decorative style, or garnished with precious metals, but most were of cut steel or iron.
Musketeers often favoured a curved hanger or hunting sword. Suspended from a waist-belt or baldric the name derived from its location. Hounslow made blades were often this type. Usually around 27in (689mm) long with a single cutting edge and double-fullering towards the spine. Simple hilts, with asymmetrical twin shell-guards, were of wood or horn and wire binding. The single knuckle-bow was often knopped. One variety had a falchion blade similar to a scimitar and a few were saw-backed.
The Pikeman
The cumbersome musket was slow to reload so users were vulnerable to rapidly moving cavalry or foot. To counteract this blocks of soldiers with the inexpensive pike were organised to fend off horsemen but were also used in an aggressive mode against similarly armed troops. The pike had a 16ft (4.9m) long ash shaft with a spear head secured by cheeks or langets. The twin straps of some 2ft (613mm) were riveted to the woodwork. Heads might be leaf shaped or poker style. Due to the extreme length of the weapon the shaft was tapered towards the tip to reduce weight and some users shortened the pole to facilitate carriage. In the ‘push of pike’ as a group some skill (and strength) was required. Pikeman had to learn more than 20 different postures to prevent danger to their comrades. Mixed in with the spearmen were half-pikes, spontoons or partisans for officers and halberds for noncommissioned ranks. These were badges of office, rallying markers and implements for aligning pikemen as well as weapons.
Armour on the battlefield
The prevalence of firearms had reduced the effectiveness of full body armour by the civil wars. Harquebusiers carried enough weapons and equipment to tax their strength without the added burden of weighty, but largely ineffective, steel shells. The protection was reduced to steel breast and back plates, a helmet and sometimes a gauntlet for the left arm. Without the latter a munition-quality rig cost about £1 throughout the decade. The chest plate was ridged from throat to navel with smooth curves to both sides. Small and large flanges were formed around the neck and arm openings and at the waist. The back section was slightly concave along the spine but had similar edges. Leather straps riveted on the rear plate at shoulder and lower back connected to the breast protection with keys or buckles. The shoulders straps were reinforced with overlapped iron plates. Most chest armour was proved against pistol or carbine ammunition by a test shot that left a distinctive dent.
Wealthier individuals, especially horsemen, often wore their armour over a thick leather jacket. Some foot soldiers dispensed with the breast and back plates and just wore the coat. The material was normally a strong, soft preparation of bull's hide or some similar thick-skinned animal. The buff coat, a large number of which survived at Littlecote House and are now conserved by the Royal Armouries, were expensive at between £5 and £10 each. The skirted garment usually had ¾ sleeves and was laced at the front. Due to the thickness of the hide to resist a sword slash every seam was triple stitched which added to the cost. Linen or silk linings,
braided edges, hook and eye fastenings varied according to the outlay expended. Some top-of-the-range models had double thickness sleeves.
Mounted harquebusiers sometimes added an elbow length, metal protected, leather gauntlet to their left bridle arm. A helmet was often the steel three barred pott, almost a replica of a Roman legionary’s design from centuries before. A two-part skull with central ridge carried a hinged peak, cheek pieces and a ridged neck protection. The visor supported a triple bar cage to protect the face. Some nape guards were laminated but those that weren’t often had engraved lines in simulation. Parliamentarian users gained the title, lobsters, from the resemblance to that creature’s tail.
Cuirassiers (heavy cavalry) and pikemen added tassets to their breast plates. The horseman’s laminated thigh protection was divided for use on horse back but the pike user had a better groin protection that resembled a skirt. The twin tassets were separate to allow walking but hung together when at rest. The lower lamella were usually the widest and the devices were suspended from metal hinges on the breast plate. Rivet heads were prominent.
Cavalry added knee protection to the tassets, a pronounced rear skirt over the saddle and full shoulder and arm protection. Left and right pauldrons, rerebraces and vambraces guarded the limbs to the gauntlets. Some sappers were also protected this way. Full-face helmets with gorgets and visors enclosed the head whereas the pikemen favoured a brimmed pott. The two-piece skull with ridge flared all round supported twin cheek-pieces.
Although the conflict absorbed nonstandard weapons and equipment from home and abroad, where new items were made pre-Civil War designs tended to be continued. Therefore, over the conflicts more uniform designs appeared. Parliament, with its control of London, tended to have an advantage thanks to the Ordnance office in the Tower of London, the biggest port and Hounslow sword manufactory. Royalists occupied more sources of raw materials but had fewer skilled craftsmen.
Acknowledgements: Appreciation to all those mentioned in the captions.