Pearl Harbor in flames
John C Pursley describes the action when Japan launched a surprise attack on the US Naval fleet
In the late 1930s, only 20 years had passed since the end of WWI. The horror and brutality of trench fighting were still fresh in the minds of the American public rendering many unwilling to support what seemed to be another European conflict. Remaining neutral and relying on the US military to protect the homeland and the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, would keep Americans safe while the Europeans figured out their own struggles.
To back the sentiment, the US Congress passed Neutrality Acts intended to avert future involvement in foreign wars by prohibiting trade with nations at war, making loans, or traveling on their ships. However, by 1940, the war was no longer possible to ignore. The Nazi war machine had been so effective, that Great Britain remained the only major European power capable of challenging the advancing aggressors. The reality of the situation greatly increased the debate in the United States over whether American interests were better served by staying out or getting involved.
However, Europe was not the only setting that could potentially result in devastating financial repercussions or all-out war. The US was not happy with the expansionist ambitions of Imperial Japan ever since its invasion of China in 1931 because trade opportunities
could potentially be severely limited or even halted . The Americans wanted their access to China to remain open for the sake of profit and not have the Japanese control the import market. The Japanese, by virtue of being very limited in territory, wanted the land mass and resources of China to solve both their demographic and economic situation.
Problems had been growing steadily since 1937 when Japan officially declared war on China, but when Japan negotiated domination over a major portion of Southeast Asia as a result of an agreement with Vichy France, the US was politically moved to action.
The indecision ends
The Roosevelt administration introduced economic sanctions in 1940, making it clear that the United States would not support Japan’s progression into the Pacific, just like it contested the German expansion in Europe. The Americans not only stopped the exportation of scrap steel, raw materials, oil, and high-octane gasoline, but also froze the financial assets of the Japanese in the USA.
The deal that America brokered with the British and the Dutch was a devastating blow to the islandnation which imported 90% of its oil. Without the precious commodity, the Japanese could not support their infrastructure, which would stop military expansion and thus end their efforts to engage in war.
In reaction to the embargo, the
Japanese government negotiated an agreement with Germany and Italy known as the Tripartite Pact, which accomplished little towards improving relations with the US.
With only a six-month supply of fuel available for its armed forces, the Japanese initiated the conquest of Southeast Asia, which meant war with America, Britain and the Netherlands was unavoidable.
The strengthening of United States defenses in the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, and Midway and Wake Islands, as well as stationing the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor in the late 1930s made America the first priority for a Japanese attack.
Believing that the US Pacific Fleet was in the way of the impending Japanese subjugation of Southeast Asia, the commander-in-chief of the Japanese Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, reasoned a surprise attack on the US ships at anchor in Pearl Harbor could quickly neutralise the opposition and secure the Pacific for further unimpeded expansion.
However, the Admiral was conflicted and concerned about the long-term consequences of a prolonged war with a country capable of out-manufacturing Japan. Yamamoto was indeed apprehensive and also dissatisfied with the eagerness his superiors were exhibiting concerning engaging the Americans in an all-out war.
Despite his personal feelings, Yamamoto possessed a strong sense of duty to his nation. With the probability of war coming in the near future, he evaluated Japan’s chances at winning against a much larger opponent. He fully expected for everything to be on his side for six months, but after that, the outcome would be questionable.
Japanese strategy
At the time, Yamamoto was unsure if an successful aerial attack could be executed against Pearl Harbor. This was not a new idea and such battle exercises by both countries had been previously carried out leaving the Japanese doubtful if they could accomplish the feat.
However, a young tactical Japanese genius in aerial warfare, Commander Minoru Genda, formulated a feasible plan for such an operation and presented it to his superiors. After several months of deliberations, the Japanese admiralty decided the plan might work and began research on how to make the aerial torpedo attack possible.
First, the Japanese had to overcome the characteristics of their existing standard aerial torpedo which, after release, would sink to a depth greater than 100ft and run a significant distance before arming itself. With Pearl Harbor only having an average depth of 45ft, and the fleet crowded together, the torpedo runs would need to be shortened and the torpedoes altered in order fit the conditions. The challenges were seemingly difficult to overcome.
However, it was soon found the solutions were fairly simple and solved by simply attaching larger wooden fins to the torpedoes, modifying the arming mechanisms, and utilising intense pilot training in simulated surroundings.
For many months, the First Air Fleet
practised the maneuvers with encouraging results and as negotiations with the
United States worsened, official approval for the Hawaiian Operation was given on 6 September 1941. The basic plan was to hit the Americans so hard at Pearl Harbor on the first day, that they would pursue peace at any cost.
In anticipation, a large task force of 32 ships including six aircraft carriers under the direct command of Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, got underway on 26 November, and set sail for Hawaii intending to approach by the north. They counted on winter storms to conceal their fleet and reduce the chances of encountering the enemy while on the high seas. Their submarines traveled 200 miles ahead and once picketed around the islands, they, and agents on Oahu, provided real time reports.
The Japanese high command agreed with Yamamoto that Japan’s only chance of success would be a surprise attack intended to annihilate America’s Navy as swiftly as possible. By destroying a large portion of the American fleet, Japan could move into the Dutch East Indies and Malaya to conquer territories that would provide important natural resources such as oil and rubber. They would also subsequently conquer the Philippines and Malaya while America was still reeling from the devastating attack.
On 1 December 1941, Emperor Hirohito met with his council headed by Prime Minister General Hideki Tojo where the latter declared diplomatic efforts with the United States were futile and that the only way to avoid total capitulation to what they considered foreign extortion, would
be an armed conflict.
Tojo stated to the council that Japan, the one nation that had modernised instead of being colonised, could not accept the American demands without riots at home, revolts in Korea, and reversal of their governing status in Manchuria. He declared the Empire of Japan stood on the threshold of either glory or oblivion.
The Emperor asked for a vote which resulted in unanimous support for war. The Japanese fleet was then directed to attack Pearl Harbour unless it received a
last-minute cancellation as a result of a sudden change in America’s attitude.
The attack begins
On 2 December, a coded message arrived in Tokyo signaling the final decision to wage war. The fleet was authorised to make the attack on Sunday, 7 December.
The Japanese aircraft arsenal was lethal and contained different types of planes including the Nakajima B5 N2, which served as torpedo bombers; Aichi D3A1 dive bombers, and Mitsubishi A6M2
Reisen Zero fighter planes. At 6am on the day of the attack, the Japanese fleet was 230 miles north of Oahu and launched the first wave of 183 planes from the six carriers. 20 minutes later, Commander Fuchida led that wave toward Pearl Harbor.
No sooner had the first group of planes departed, the air support crews aboard the carriers prepared the second wave for their attack. At 7.05am the carriers began launching another 167 aircraft. In all, there were 350 planes for the targets.
Meanwhile, on Oahu, the Americans were engaging in their usual Sunday morning activities and were lulled by inaction and the relaxed mood of the Hawaiian culture; they were completely unprepared for what was heading their way. So much so, that they completely missed the obvious two warnings of the impending attack.
The first indication occurred just outside the entrance to Pearl Harbor at
6.30am when the destroyer USS Ward dropped several depth-charges sinking a Japanese miniature submarine. Such was the confusion over if the vessel had really been Japanese, a full hour passed before Admiral Husband E Kimmel, Commander-in-chief of the US Pacific Fleet was notified.
At 7.02am the second warning occurred when two Army radar operators on
Oahu’s north shore picked up a large formation of planes on their radar screens. After confirming their equipment was in working order, they notified their watch officer at Fort Shafter. The officer incorrectly assumed the radar sightings were a flight of expected B-17s that were flying in from California.
As the leader of the first flight, Commander
Fuchida, looked toward Pearl Harbor and the surrounding airfields, he realised the American fleet was in port and that the attack was a complete surprise. Fortunately for the Americans, their aircraft carriers were out to sea that day, so the Japanese defaulted to their secondary target of the battleships.
On that morning, seven of the eight battleships stationed at Pearl Harbor were moored in a neat line on what was referred to as Battleship Row, the Pennsylvania was in dry dock for repairs.
Several of the first torpedoes and bombs dropped hit their unsuspecting targets and although the crews on board each battleship manned anti-aircraft guns within five minutes of the attack and worked feverishly to preserve their ships afloat, the damage was severe.
Damage incurred by the battleships
Nevada – 30 minutes after Nevada had been hit by one torpedo, she got underway and headed toward the harbour entrance making her an easy target for the Japanese bombers. Soon, the damage was significant and to avoid sinking, the captain changed course and beached the ship.
Arizona - Struck by a bomb in the forward ammunition storage magazine causing a massive explosion, which quickly sank the ship
Tennessee – Hit by two bombs and having been damaged by oil fires from the adjacent Arizona explosion, she managed to stay afloat
West Virginia - Hit by as many as nine torpedoes, quickly sank
Maryland - Hit by two bombs but, miraculously, was not heavily damaged Oklahoma - Hit by an estimated nine torpedoes and listed so severely that she capsized
California - Struck by two torpedoes and one bomb. She sank three days later Pennsylvania- Incurred one bomb strike and suffered manageable damage
In addition to sinking the ships of the American Navy, attacking their aircraft was equally important for if the Japanese succeeded in destroying a large portion of the airplanes, then they would control the skies above
Pearl Harbor. Also, the ability of the Americans to stage a counterattack against the Japanese fleet would be rendered impossible. With this in mind, some Japanese planes participating in
the first wave attacked the airfields on Oahu that bordered Pearl Harbor.
Many of the American fighter planes were neatly lined up along the airstrips, wingtip to wingtip. The Japanese had a field day strafing and bombing the defenseless aircraft, hangers, and other buildings. They were extremely successful at destroying most of the grounded aircraft. However, a limited number of US fighter pilots got their planes into the air and shot down a few of the Japanese.
The attack was over by 9.45am. Admiral Nagumo had achieved successful results with minimal casualties, and considered the mission accomplished. With fuel in short supply and American carriers and other ships now searching for him, the Admiral ordered the ships back to Japan. That decision was a major mistake and diminished any long-term effects of the strike.
While assessing reports of the successful attack, Yamamoto is understood to have said, “I fear all we have done is awaken a sleeping giant and fill him with terrible resolve.” On 8 December, the United States Congress declared war on the Empire of Japan.
In addition to the battleships, three light cruisers and four destroyers, one minelayer, one target ship and four auxiliaries were damaged in the attack. 188 US planes were destroyed and an additional 159 placed out of action.
A total of 2,335 servicemen were killed with an additional 1,143 wounded. 68 civilians also lost their lives and 35 were wounded. Of the servicemen killed, 1,137 were on-board the Arizona when she exploded. On the Japanese side, 129 were killed, 29 aircraft were lost, and five midget submarines sunk.
Aftermath of the attack
The Japanese had been so intent on destroying the American fleet, they ignored the infrastructure. The base’s oil storage facilities, repair shops, shipyard and submarine docks received little or no damage. The US Navy was able to recover fairly quickly from the attack and within months, two battleships were back at sea.
The US military commanders at
Pearl Harbour, Admiral Kimmel and Lieutenant General Walter Short were subsequently charged with dereliction of duty.
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