Punctuation, direct and indirect speech

THE definition of a word found in a dictionary is that word’s denotation, or direct, specific meaning. Many words have more than one denotation, and some words have several. As a writer looking for just the right word, however, you have to consider more than just denotation, because many words have other associations, either positive or negative, attached to them. These added ideas and feelings are called connotations.

Some words, such as house, have only a denotative meaning. These words can be thought as neutral. A word like home, however, has a positive connotation suggesting a welcoming, comfortable place. In contrast, the word shack has a negative connotation, suggesting a shabby, run-down place.

Direct speech and quotation marks: Note that only the actual words spoken or written are enclosed in the quotation marks “”. Here are some examples: He said, “I am a doctor”. She asked, “Where are you going?” “My name is Kingsley”, he said. “Where are you going?” she asked. “My name is Kingsley,” he said, “and I am fifteen.” “There is tea and juice,” said mother, “Which do you prefer?” He said, “It is hot. I will need an umbrella.” She said, “I will visit you tomorrow. Is that alright with you?”

What are contractions? A short form of two words, mainly used in reporting speech in writing as well as in question tags. Examples and their long forms: isn’t – is not, wasn’t – was not, weren’t – were not, doesn’t – does not, didn’t – did not, can’t – cannot, they’ve – they have, there’s – there is, it’s – it is, don’t – do not, I’ve – I have, haven’t – have not, who’ll – who will, wouldn’t – would not, could’ve – could have, aren’t – are not, should’ve – should have, shan’t – shall not, you’ll – you will and she’s – she is.

Question tag. We are reminded that if the main statement is positive, then the question tag is in the negative. Examples: You will do this for me, won’t you? She was here before, wasn’t she? You have some time to spare, haven’t you? We could have revised this before, couldn’t we? These boys are very inquisitive, aren’t they?

But: If the statement is negative, then the question tag is in the positive. Examples: You will not bother me while I sleep, will you? He cannot work it out, can he? They are not common here today, are they? This is not a wise idea, is it? I am not expected to do all this, am I?

Direct or reported speech: “I will be away the whole of next term,” said the teacher. Indirect or reported speech: The teacher said that he would be away the whole of next term. In indirect or reported speech some spoken words are not given exactly as they were spoken. Changes are made to verbs, pronouns, possessive adjectives, some expressions of time and some expressions of place.

Verb changes: Present tense becomes past tense. Examples: think – thought, is – was, are – were, will – would, can – could, shall – should/ would, do/does – did, may – might, has/have – had.

Pronoun and possessive changes: Changes are made depending on who is reporting the speech. Study the following situation: Paul speaks to Raul while Peter listens. My brother and I will visit you tomorrow, “said Paul. Indirect speech: Raul said that Paul and his brother would visit him the following day. Peter said that Paul and his brother would visit Raul the following day.

Changes in adverbs of place and time: Direct speech: This cast will stage this play here today”, announced the official a few minutes ago. Indirect/reported speech: “The official announced a few minutes ago before that that cast would stage that play there, that day.

List of words that change under direct and indirect/reported speech: this – that, these – those, here – there, now – then, ago – before, today – that day, yesterday – the previous day, last year/week – the previous year/week, tomorrow – the following/next day, come/ coming – go/going.

Indirect speech for questions: “whether” or “if ” are used to introduce questions that can be answered by “yes” or “no”,

Indirect speech: She asked me whether/ if I would be back before dinner. Questions introduced by: ‘how’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘who’, ‘whose’, ‘where’, keep these words in the reported speech. For example: He asked me, “What are you looking for now?” “Where did you buy the meat from?” Mrs Moyo asked the boy.

Indirect speech: He asked me what I was looking for then? Mrs Moyo asked the boy where he had bought the meat from. Note that in indirect/reported speech: Note that in indirect/reported speech: the question mark is dropped and a full stop is used. The order of the words in the question direct speech changes in the indirect/reported speech.

Reporting commands and exclamations: An infinitive is used for the “command” or “order” verbs. For example: “Run,” the sports master ordered the athlete. Indirect speech: The sports master ordered the athlete to run. Ordered, requested, told, commanded, asked, advised, shouted, pleaded, etc must be used in place of “said” whenever reporting commands and exclamations.

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