Zheng Yingqin

is Assistant Research Fellow at Shanghai Institutes for International Studies (SIIS).

1 The three blue economic passages are the China-indian Ocean-africa-mediterranean Sea Blue Economic Passage, the China-oceania-south Pacific Blue Economic Passage, and an envisioned blue economic passage leading up to Europe via the Arctic Ocean. See National Development and Reform Commission and State Oceanic Administration, Vision for Maritime Cooperation under the Belt and Road Initiative, June 20, 2017, http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-06/20/c_136380414.htm.

2 Yang Jian, “The International Environment for Building the ‘Polar Silk Road’ and China’s Response,” Frontiers, No.11, 2018, pp.13-23.

3 Norwegian Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries and Ministry of Petroleum and Energy, New Growth, Proud History: The Norwegian Government’s Ocean Strategy, April 2017.

4 New Growth, Proud History: The Norwegian Government’s Ocean Strategy.

5 Government Offices of Sweden, Strategy for Sweden’s Global Development Cooperation in the Areas of Environmental Sustainability, Sustainable Climate and Oceans, and Sustainable Use of Natural Resources 2018–2022, June 8, 2018.

6 Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Place of the Oceans in Norway’s Foreign and Development Policy, March 28, 2017.

7 “President Xi’s Vision of a Maritime Community with a Shared Future Finds an Echo,” People.com.cn, June 9, 2019, http://world.people.com.cn/n1/2019/0609/c1002-31126114.html.

8 Zhang Xia, et al., “The Economic Estimate of Arctic Sea Routes and Its Strategic Significance for the Development of Chinese Economy,” China Soft Science, No.2, 2009, p.35.

9 “Ambassador Gui Congyou Speaks at Nordic China Smart City Conference,” Chinese Embassy in Sweden, March 26, 2019, https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cese/chn/zrgxs/jmhz/t1648522.htm.

10 Heidar Gudjonsson and Egill Thor Nielsson, “China’s Belt and Road: Where Does the Arctic Angle Stand?” The Diplomat, September 22, 2017, https://thediplomat.com/2017/09/chinas-belt-and-road-wheredoes-the-arctic-angle-stand.

11 “China’s Arctic Policy in Line with International Law: Finnish President,” Xinhua, March 7, 2018. 12 Gudlaugur Thor Thordarsson, “Iceland-china Relations Will Continue to Strengthen,” China Daily, September 6, 2018.

13 “Nordic Prime Ministers: The Nordic Region to Be the Most Integrated in the World,” Norden, September 28, 2016.

14 “Vice Foreign Minister Wang Chao and Secretary General Dagfinn Høybråten of the Nordic Council of Ministers Hold Consultation on China-nordic Cooperation,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China, May 25, 2017.

15 Zhang Weipeng and Yu Xiaofeng, “Institutional Approaches to Deepening China-nordic Sub-regional Cooperation,” China International Studies, No.3, 2019, pp.148-165.

16 Arctic Economic Council Secretariat’s Annual Report 2018, May 2019, https://arcticeconomiccouncil. com/the-aec-in-2018/.

17 Qian Zongqi, Russia’s Arctic Strategy and the Ice Silk Road, Current Affairs Press, 2018, pp.193-202.

18 The Headquarters for Ocean Policy, Japan’s Arctic Policy, October 16, 2015, http://library.arcticportal. org/1883.

19 South Korea has established a research center for Arctic sea routes to conduct relevant training and joint research with Russia and Japan. See Ye Yanhua, “International Cooperation for East Asian Countries to Participate in Arctic Affairs,” Northeast Asia Forum, No.6, 2018, pp.92-104.

20 Han Lixin, Cai Shuang and Zhu Ke, “An Analysis of the Latest Arctic Policies of China, Japan and South Korea,” Journal of Ocean University of China (Social Sciences), No.3, 2019, pp.58-67.

21 Institute for Security and Development Policy, “Sino-nordic Relations: Opportunities and the Way Ahead,” November 2016, http://isdp.eu/publication/sino-nordic-relations-opportunities-way-ahead.

22 Lassi Heininen and Yang Jian, Sino-nordic Arctic Cooperation: Objectives and Approaches, Current Affairs Press, 2019, Chapter One.

23 Institute for Security and Development Policy, “Sino-nordic Relations: Opportunities and the Way Ahead.”

24 Due to the United States’ opposition, the 11th ministerial meeting of the Arctic Council held in early May 2019 failed to issue a joint declaration, which is the first time in the Arctic Council’s 23-year history that the ministerial meeting ended without an agreed document.

25 Ole Waever, “A Post-western Europe: Strange Identities in a Less Liberal World Order,” Ethics and International Affairs, No.1, 2018, pp.75-88.

26 Bjørnar Sverdrup-thygeson and Jerker Hellström, “Introduction: Quintet Out of Tune? China’s Bilateral Relations with the Nordic States,” in Bjørnar Sverdrup-thygeson, Dragon in the North: The Nordic Countries’ Relations with China, Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, 2016.

27 Todd Royal, “How China and Russia are Teaming up to Degrade US Influence in South America,” The National Interest, December 4, 2017.

28 Mark Rosen and David Slayton, “China Is Seizing the Geopolitical Opportunities of the Melting Arctic,” The Hill, October 30, 2017; “Pompeo Picks Fault with Chinese and Russian Activities in the Arctic, Vows to Strengthen US Presence,” May 7, 2019, http://m.gmw.cn/2019-05/07/content_1300353642.htm.

29 The European Commission and the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Developing a European Union Policy towards the Arctic Region: Progress since 2008 and Next Steps, June 20, 2012, p.6.

30 Directorate-general for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (European Commission), Summary Report of the Arctic Stakeholder Forum Consultation to Identify Key Investment Priorities in the Arctic and Ways to Better Streamline Future EU Funding Programs for the Region, December 21, 2017.