‘Namibia Exception’ of ICJ may offer a relief for Turkish Cypriots

THE right to self-determination is one of the richest subjects in public international law and international politics. Although the latter seems to have a predominant influence on it, selfdetermination is primarily a significant legal notion, tightly linked to the concepts of statehood and recognition, and as such requires a rights-based legal framework.

Starting out from this point of view, there seems to be a great deal of benefit in examining on what new grounds the Turkish and Turkish Cypriot diplomacy can establish or increase the chances of establishing international legitimacy for the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC).

The TRNC was established in 1983 after Turkey’s military intervention against the attempt of Greece to annex the island in 1974 through an ill-fated coup attempt. At the time, Turkey acted in accordance with the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee, and initiated the Cyprus Peace Operation. While still seeking reconciliation and peace on the island, the TRNC continues to prioritise multilateralism and diplomacy over unilateralism. Although the Turkish Cypriots’ declaration of independence has been regarded as illegal by many Western countries since 1983, hopes for reiterating its legitimacy have not faded yet. Forging relations between the Turkish Cypriot community and international society has been of paramount significance to Turkey and the Turkish diplomacy.

Kosovo and Cyprus cases: A deadlock

Before acknowledging the Turkish diplomacy’s vital role, the resemblance of the Cyprus case to the Kosovo case deserves consideration in order to better appreciate the recent legal and political challenges.

After Nato’s military intervention in Kosovo in 1999, an “international territorial administration” was established under the UN Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 1244. Kosovo declared its independence in 2008 and is currently recognised by 114 countries. On the other hand, the TRNC has not yet been recognised as an independent state by any country with the singular exception of Turkey.

There are no UNSC resolutions paying attention to the non-recognition of Kosovo. However, in the UNSC Resolution 541, the UNSC explained its commitments towards the territorial integrity of the “Republic of Cyprus” and evaluated any attempt to create a “TRNC” as invalid. More importantly, Article 7 of this resolution calls for “the nonrecognition of any Cypriot state other than the Republic of Cyprus”. The origin of Article 7 stems from Article 41(2) of the International Law Commission (ILC) Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, which directly stipulates the “obligation of non-recognition of a situation created by a serious breach of international law” for the states that are parties to it.

In the same vein, the legal doctrine tends to identify this obligation as a “duty not to recognise the illegal acquisition of territory”. [1] In the light of these inferences, the recognition of the TRNC will not be possible unless the mentioned resolution(s) is/are repealed by the permanent members of the UNSC.

Furthermore, the second important difference between the Kosovo and Cyprus cases stems from the objectives of the UNSC: while Article 10 of the UNSC Resolution 1244 envisages a “transitional/interim administration” for Kosovo, the UNSC, interestingly, intends to achieve a “final solution” in Cyprus, specifying a number of parameters based on the idea of an independent federal republic composed of two communities. For instance, the 10-Point Agreement (1979) between Makarios and Denktaş was one of the guideposts of the UNSC while specifying the parameters regarding the issue of Cyprus.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), in consistency with the UNSC’s position, has held that the declaration of independence in Kosovo complies with the UNSC Resolution 1244 since the resolution only targets an interim/transitional administration in the country.

Having left the final situation in Kosovo unresolved, the ICJ, on the other hand, directly referred to the Cyprus case in its Kosovo Advisory Opinion and described the declaration of independence of the TRNC as illegal under international law in accordance with the aforementioned UNSC resolutions.

In spite of Turkish and Turkish Cypriot endeavours to empower the trust-building mechanisms to restore peace and prosperity on the island, Lefkoşa remains the world’s last divided capital. Given the recent developments in the Eastern Mediterranean, hopes for a federal solution seem to be further weakening. As the Turkish ambassador to the TRNC, Ali Murat Başçeri noted last year that a federal solution should not be the only alternative for the Cyprus problem and all alternatives should be on the table.

Furthermore, on September 17, Hami Aksoy, the spokesperson of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, underlined that a federal solution may not be possible and that alternatives should be examined on the basis of sovereign equality. In this context, the parties may consider taking courageous steps to reorganise the balance of power in the region. Notwithstanding the recent Greek and Greek Cypriot attempts to confine Turkey to the Gulf of Antalya, Turkey, as the guarantor state, ought to preserve the status quo on the island, until the Greek Cypriots pledge to be part of a constructive dialogue without any preconditions.

On this occasion, Turkey must continue to strengthen the legal and political ground of the international legitimacy of the TRNC and the just cause of the Turkish Cypriots. This can be possible by invoking the “Namibia Exception” in public international law.

The “Namibia Exception”

Recalling from Article 41(2) of the ILC Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, states party to the Convention are “obliged to withhold the recognition of the annexation”.

Secondly, these states have a “duty not to render aid or assistance in maintaining that situation”. This phenomenon is termed as a “duty of collective nonrecognition”. A UK court’s landmark judgment on Kıbrıs Türk Hava Yolları (Cyprus Turkish Airlines), in which the court held that the prohibition of flights between Northern Cyprus and the UK is legitimate under Article 41, demonstrated that the UK judiciary still follows the lead of the executive, and eventually, the duty of collective non-recognition is still robust in the UK case law.

The duty of non-recognition, meanwhile, is not absolute in some jurisdictions. In its Namibia judgment, the ICJ determined that there might be some exceptions to the duty of non-recognition, such as the registration of births, deaths and marriages of the people of Namibia granted by the unrecognised “South West African” government.

In 1966, the UN General Assembly terminated the mandate of South Africa in modern-day Namibia. However, until its independence from South Africa in 1990, the de facto South African rule in Namibia (formerly named “South West Africa”) continued. The UN, until Namibia’s peaceful transition, defined the government of South West Africa as a “de facto but illegal occupying power”.

Although its independence was officially recognised by the international community, the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion of Namibia (1971) still illuminates the developing jurisprudences of the international courts. In fact, Namibia is one of recent examples in which the ICJ strived for keeping the interests of people in Namibia superior because in fact, Article 41 does not have a purpose of “punishing” the inhabitants in an internationally unrecognized territory.

Expanding the Namibia Exception: Why not?

As discussed above, it is possible to pursue a lenient approach towards the duty of nonrecognition in some jurisdictions. The “Namibia Exception” was a landmark step since it showed that the conventional position had softened over the years. That is why Turkey, the sole country which gives voice to the just cause of the Turkish Cypriots, might consider making use of the exceptional position put forward in the “Namibia Exception”, in order to prevent the Turkish Cypriots from ending up “[deprived] of any advantages derived from international cooperation”.

As James R. Crawford, an Australian academic and practitioner in the field of public international law, acknowledges, [2] the European Court of Justice and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) nowadays pursue a softened approach towards the duty of non-recognition.

However, the argumentation of these courts in several judgments still lacks uniformity and coherence. For instance, in Anastasiou I, the importation of agricultural products from Northern Cyprus was in question, and in spite of the UK and European Commission’s objections, the court did not accept that the certificates produced by the TRNC authorities for the goods (to be exported to the UK) fall within the ambit of the Association Agreement between the EU and the “Republic of Cyprus” dated 1972.

This approach, unfortunately, lacks a plausible argumentation. Turkish Cypriots, despite Turkey’s decisive actions to ensure stability and prosperity on the island, have been deprived of their basic rights stemming from international treaties and custom. Recalling from Anastasiou I, the ICJ manifestly turned a blind eye to its own jurisprudence, the “Namibia Exception”, by rejecting the validity of the certificates granted by the TRNC authorities. Actually, the court ought to acknowledge that denying the validity of the certificates would amount to denying the “advantages” granted by the Association Agreement for the sake of the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot inhabitants of the island.

Overall, if the “Namibia Exception” was thoroughly embraced by the ICJ, the Anastasiou I judgment would have reiterated the precedential value of Namibia Advisory Opinion and served the humanitarian causes of Turkish Cypriots.

However, in some ECHR decisions, such as Cyprus v Turkey, Loizidou v Turkey and Demoupoulos v Turkey, the court relied on the “Namibia Exception” and basically argued that holding otherwise would amount to stripping the inhabitants of the territory of all their rights.

In the light of these points, Turkey’s stance on Cyprus must continue to be clear and firm. Although the international recognition of the TRNC as an independent republic is not possible under the current status quo and there is an undeniable prospect of increasing escalation in the Eastern Mediterranean, Turkey might prefer to propose the “Namibia Exception” for its political agenda in order to strengthen the legitimacy of the just cause of the Turkish Cypriots.

Thus, the international community is more likely to be aware of the minimum standard of rights to which the Turkish Cypriots are entitled under international cooperation and international treaties. In the same vein, it would be decisively demonstrated to the international public that Turkish Cypriots will never be robbed of their inalienable human rights.

DenizÜnsalisaMasterof Laws(LL.M.)inInternationaland ComparativeLawcandidateat TrinityCollegeDublin.Heisa 2019-2020EuropeanUnion(EU) JeanMonnetscholar.Heholdsa BachelorofArtsdegreeinlawand minordegreeinpoliticalscience fromBilkentUniversity.Hismain focusareasareTurkey-EU relations,theEastern Mediterraneanandcontemporary debatesinTurkishforeignpolicy. Hehasaspecialinterestinpublic internationallaw,EUlawand late-Ottomaneralegal-political developments.

Lefkoşa — Birgün Eczanesi: 36 Kemal Aksay Cad, Taşkınköy. Tel: 225 2412; Oba Eczanesi: Hacı Ali Apt B Blok D79, Hasan Tahsin Cad, Ortaköy (opposite Lemar). Tel: 223 7101 and 0533 834 0792; Seyrantepe Eczanesi: Atatürk Cad No 48D, Hamitköy. Tel: 225 5728. Girne — Rızkı Eczanesi: Naci Talat Cad No 3 (next to Foto Berkant). Tel: 815 3496 and 0542 851 1236; Törensel Eczanesi: Beşparmaklar Cad, Nihat Bağcıer Stad, No 121/H, Çatalköy. Next to Tempo supermarket. Tel: 824 5713 and 0533 867 2778. Gazimağusa — Bahar Eczanesi: Salamis road No 45, next to Haklıgil petrol station. Tel: 365 5126 and 0548 840 0608; Umut Eczanesi: Salamis road, Çetin Alkan Apt No 2, Dumlupınar Sport Club, Fountain roundabout behind the Victory Monument. Tel: 366 2369 and 0533 862 8361. Güzelyurt — Kıvanç Ufuk Eczanesi, Ecevit Cad, No 82. Tel: 714 1894 and 0533 830 9050. Lefke — Hatice Soyer Eczanesi: Cengizköy No 74/A. Tel: 0548 865 5291/0533 865 5291. Iskele — Selin Eczanesi: Şht Üstteğmen Mustafa Orhan Cad, Yeni Iskele. Tel: 371 2856 0533 873 3089.

Lefkoşa — Alpdoğan Eczanesi: Nazim Hikmet Cad No 124/4, Metehan roundabout, Kermiya. Tel: 330 1036 and 0533 852 9990; Enver Alibaba Eczanesi: Opposite Atatürk Öğretmen Akademisi. Fikriye Hüseyin Sok No 1. Tel: 227 1311 and 0533 864 9045; Kızılbaş Eczanesi: Kemal Aksay Cad, No 43/ 2, Taşkınköy. Tel: 225 3259 and 0533 840 6505.

Girne — Barış Eczanesi: Ibrahim Nidai Cad No 55, Lapta. Tel: 821 8410; Sertaç Eczanesi: Iskenderun Cad, below Nergis Apt. Close to Girne Private Hospital. Tel: 815 9067 and 0533 860 1301. Gazimağusa — Burcu Gökalp Eczanesi: Kaliland district Ayten Apt Samanyolu road. Tel: 365 6939 and 0542 878 2420; Upper Mesaoria — Serdarlı Eczanesi: Han Street, Serdarlı. Tel: 376 7006 and 0542 851 6466. Lower Mesaoria — Güner Binboğa Eczanesi: Atatürk Cad, No 4, Paşaköy. Tel: 236 9100 and 0548 833 9100. Karpaz — Melek Eczanesi: (Open Mon-Fri 8am-8pm, Sat 8am-4pm) Mehmetçik. Tel: 375 5366 and 0533 872 9400; Sakıner Eczanesi: Yenierenköy. Tel: 374 4356 and 0533 860 7247. Güzelyurt — Ilkin Sadrazam Eczanesi: Binatlıı Sok, No 6 A/B. Tel: 714 1222 and 0533 823 9004. Lefke — Ilkşen Eczanesi: Belediye shops No 18 Gemikonağı. Tel: 727 8240 and 0548 860 1973. Iskele — Özbirtan Eczanesi: Dr Temel Zeki Cad, Arken Apt, B2, No 3. Tel: 371 2224 and 0533 876 9657.

Lefkoşa — Damla Kardüz Eczanesi:

Atatürk Cad, Gönyeli. Tel: 223 4565 and 0533 884 0415; Pervin Eczanesi: Haydar Aliyev Cad, Berber Tarlası shop No 12/C opposite Remax, Küçük Kaymaklı. Tel: 225 2818 and 0533 832 0925; Yusuf Tandoğan Eczanesi: Mehmet Akif Cad, Hacı Ali Apt A Block No 4. Tel: 227 2350. Girne — Mehmet Kamiloğlu Eczanesi: Mustafa Çağatay Cad, No. 41, on the Akçiçek Hospital road. Tel: 815 2150 and 0533 863 0179; Zehra Kelebek Eczanesi: Mareşal

Fevzi Çakmak Caddesi. Next to Adıgüzel Lastik, Lapta. Tel; 821 3888 and 0533 857 4837. Gazimağusa — Hacer Balıkçı Eczanesi: Mustafa Kemal Bulvarı, Döveç Elitelife Apt No 3. Tel: 365 5518; Tanya Salimer Eczanesi: 15 Ağustos Bulvarı, Baykal. Tel: 366 9988 and 0533 861 2728. Güzelyurt — Sevil Eczanesi: Ecevit Cad No 53. Tel: 714 3591 and 0533 831 1303. Lefke — Hatice Soyer Eczanesi: Cengizköy No 74/A. Tel: 0548 865 5291/0533 865 5291. Iskele — Ersu Adan Eczanesi: Dr Fazıl Küçük Bulvarı, Noyanlar Sitesi, Ötüken. Tel: 378 8887.

Lefkoşa — Ahmet Mısırlı Eczanesi: Gaz Hasan Tahsin Cad No 46/6. Lemar Road opposite Serena boutique, Ortaköy. Tel: 223 9393 and 0548 883 9393; Balın Eczanesi: Dr Burhan Nalbantoğlu Cad, Alpal Buildings No 4. Tel: 223 1813; Galen Eczanesi: Gzt Kemal Aşık Cad No 62/11 (opposite bus terminal). Tel: 227 2603 and 0533 860 1101. Girne — Mucizem Eczanesi: Naci Talat Cad, Nevzat Center No 26/A. Tel: 815 1150; Mahmutoğlu Eczanesi: Ecevit Caddesi, Fuzuli Sokak. Öncel Çerkez Apartment, shop No1, opposite the new municipality building, next to Papageno. Tel: 815 0850 and 0548 837 3770. Gazimağusa — Ece Eczanesi: M Kemal Bulvarı, next to Yaşam Hospital (Lefkoşa road). Tel: 366 3846 and 0533 868 6758. Lefke — Nane Limon Eczanesi: Ecevit Cad. Yeşilyurt. Tel: 727 7470 and 0542 881 1812. Iskele — Avicenna Eczanesi: Bereket Sokak No 2/4, Bahçeler. Tel: 0542 855 0015 and 0548 882 0023.

Lefkoşa — Buse Karşılı Eczanesi: Demir Sok. No 51, Gönyeli -Yenikent. Tel: 224 1545; Imge Eczanesi: Yaman Bey Sokak No 8, Göçmenköy. Tel: 223 5951 and 0533 866 6164; Törenağa Eczanesi: Gaz Kemal Aşık Cad No 60, Küçük Kaymaklı. Tel:228 1008. Girne — Pınar Keklik Eczanesi: Karaoğlanoğlu Cad 198/A, Mazlum Plaza 2, next to Tekno Gold, Alsancak. Tel: 0533 857 5494; Ziya Sencer Eczanesi: Mete Adanır Cad, opposite Barış Park. Tel: 815 4611 and 0533 840 9877. Gazimağusa — Gökcen Ilktaç Eczanesi: 145 Salamis Road (opposite the UN camp). Tel: 365 6820; Tezer Uluçay Eczanesi: Eşref Bitlis Cad, opposite Mağusa Medical Centre A&E. Tel: 365 2424 and 0533 857 7530. Güzelyurt — Inci Eczanesi: Kutlu Adalı Bulvarı No 1-K, opposite bus terminal. Tel: 714 3252. Lefke — Sıdıka Umar Eczanesi: Menekşe Sok No2/B, Gaziveren. Tel: 723 7997 and 0533 865 7269. Iskele — Mehmet Ilban Eczanesi: Atatürk Cad, Ada Karanfil Sok.No 9D. Opposite the carob factory. Boğaz. Tel: 0533 834 8251. 0533 865 7641; Firuz Ergil Eczanesi: Yakındoğu Bulvarı 40/D, Taşkınköy. Tel: 223 1902 and 0542 883 3333; Yonca Hatipoğlu Eczanesi: fiht Ecvet Yusuf Cad, Bereket Fırını and Devpa Supermarket Rd near Kızılbaş church. Tel: 228 0606 and 0533 868 0764. Girne — Nazım Varış Eczanesi: Karaoğlanoğlu Cad, Yayla Mahallesi No 149, Alsancak. Tel: 821 3088 and 0542 852 3114; Sevin Çağay Eczanesi: Ecevit Cad. Next to Papageno Pub and Yokyoktur Market. Tel: 815 2025 and 0533 841 7207. Gazimağusa — Buğçe Bayram Eczanesi: Mustafa Kemal Bulvarı Uluçam Yolu Sok. Döveç Apt. (On the Pakduş road, next to Fitplus, opposite Çocuk Dünyası) Sakarya. Tel: 365 2525 and 0533 879 7994; Rana Yontar Eczanesi: Bayraktar Road. Çanakkale Hüryol Apt No 2 (Turn right before Sakızcıoğlu Sports centre). Tel; 366 1919 and 0533 849 9493. Güzelyurt — Aşar Eczanesi: Ecevit Cad 18-B. Tel: 714 2193 and 0548 862 7089. Lefke — Şifa Bıldır Eczanesi: Fuat Yakup Sok, No1/1, Denizli.Tel: 0533 841 9578 Iskele — Selin Eczanesi: Şht Üstteğmen Mustafa Orhan Cad, Yeni Iskele. Tel: 371 2856 0533 873 3089.

Aşık Cad, No 25, Cabacaba Apt. Tel: 227 6071 and 0548 863 6545; Yeşim Eczanesi: fiht Ünal Kemal Sok, Eser Apt, Shop B, Taşkınköy (opposite Metropol Supermarket). Tel: 225 6918 and 0533 883 8777. Girne — Aşar Eczanesi: Mustafa Çağatay Cad, Yetkili Iş Merkezi No 9. Tel: 815 7075 and 0533 862 7089; Melis Uzun Eczanesi: Işıl Sokak Uzun Apt No 4, next to Kamiloğlu Hospital. Tel: 0392 815 9777. Gazimağusa — Çise Sezerel Eczanesi: Ziya Gökalp Cad 34, Belça road. Tel: 366 3915 and 0533 848 9809; Ertuğ Emin Eczanesi: Ismet Inönü Boulvard, Salamis Road, Reflex Apt No 104/A. Next to Mardo and Dağlı Sigorta. Tel: 365 6060 and 0533 879 5199. Güzelyurt — Erin Eczanesi: Kutlu Adalı Bulvarı No 41, Lemar Shopping Parade. Tel: 714 7052 and 0533 867 2251. Lefke — Ayşe Altıntuğ Eczanesi: Şht Fuat Yakup Sok, No 7, Denizli. Tel: 0542 8726974 and 727 8565. Iskele — Özbirtan Eczanesi: Dr Temel Zeki Cad, Arken Apt, B2, No 3. Tel: 371 2224 and 0533 876 9657