Feminist movement
COVER Story Sex Crimes (5/1/2021, FT) raised concerns of rising sexual offences and rape among minors where perpetrators are family members. Women had faced "continuation or intensification of violence, threats and intimidation ... [and go through] domestic violence, sexual assault or rape" (24/12/2020, FT).
Demand for parity has been raised as many are unaware of the discourse of feminism movements.
Feminism defined as "the belief that men and women should have equal rights and opportunities organise activities in support of women's rights and interests" (Merriam-Webster's dictionary).
Early goals of feminism movement were both moral as well as political to "rescue the forgotten sister" against their absence from patriarchic/phallocentric/ misogynic/androcentric history. Feminism challenged the economic, political, psychological and historical oppression against women.
Feminism involves political and sociological theories related to gender difference raised by many moments and campaigns.
These feminist campaigned for women suffrage; women control over their body and autonomy; reproductive and abortion rights, rights to protect against domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape; equal rights in workplace and decision-making positions; and all issues against discrimination against women.
They also challenged writing history that was written by male authors reflecting male prospective and marginalising women.
They criticised the "male gaze" (how women become mere objects of male desire).
They contested that traditional-patriarchal gender roles represent men as rational, protective, strong and decisive, whereas women as emotional, weak, submissive and nurturing.
Scholars stated history of feminism could be divided into three (or four) different waves, that are discussed in this articles.
First wave
This emerged in the 19th century until early 20th century that dealt with legal or officially mandated inequalities towards women, especially "women's suffrage".
In America, the prominent leaders of this movement included Lucy Stone, Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton who campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to fighting for women's right to vote.
This was witnessed during the World War I where women came out of household work to take positions of men who were serving the front.
This demands the civil right for women as feminist leaders demanded martial equality and the right to refuse sex with her husband (primarily in US).
Gradually, the movement began to splinter, but specified groups continued their work to fight for reproductive freedom, voting rights for black women and equality in education and employment.
Second wave
The second wave happened during the early 1960s until the late 1980s that usually related to unofficial, social and cultural inequalities or injustices against the women.
This was called the women's liberation movement for equal social and legal rights.
It begins with Betty Friedan' The Feminine Mystique.
These issues included women's sexuality, family responsibilities, equal treatment and pay in the workplace; reproductive rights and de facto inequalities.
During this time, women were facing inequalities in the workforce, pay and job positions.
Because of their movement, many changes happened in terms of sexual liberation after birth control pills, outlaw marital rape to be prohibited and divorce laws were adopted; co-education emerged in tertiary institutions.
Moments like "Bra Burning Era" captured limelight, where women's showed their protests.
French scholar such as Simone De Beauvoir's work The Second Sex (1949) showed women considered as "others" within the patriarchal society that is a myth created by men as "women had the ability to get pregnant, lactate, and menstruate, and is generally an invalid excuse to deem woman as a lesser being, or second sex".
Betty Friedan's work The Feminine Mystique (1963) criticised the issue concept that women could only find fulfilment through childrearing and homemaking; claiming women to be victims of a false belief system that require them to find the meaning of their lives through their husbands and children.
Critics of the second wave stated that it was mostly led by a middle-class white woman that also does not represent all women, especially non-European.
Third wave
The third wave emerged in the early 1990s related to contemporary gender inequalities, the issues that were left behind in the second wave. They concentrate on "micro-politics" and challenge second wave's paradigm about whether actions are unilaterally good for females.
It focuses on the idea that women are not homogenous groups, where issues emerged that promote freedom of women and other marginalised identities from patriarchal oppression.
They raised a voice of sexual harassment at the workplace and increased the number of women in a position of power.
The postmodern feminist movement demanded preferential treatment of women, reproductive rights including contraception and abortion; fight against using derogatory female remarks (such as cunt, whore).
Post-feminists are not against feminism, but believed that women should have achieved second wave goals and are critical to third-wave goals.
Fourth wave
In the recent development within the feminist movement, there emerged fourth-wave feminism where Diana Diamond states this as "combines politics, psychology, and spirituality in an overarching vision of change".
Jennifer Baumgardner believed this wave incorporated online resources such as social media begun in 2008 and continues until the present day.
"Maybe the fourth wave is online", where the activists meet and plan their activities.
Baumgardner relates it to the issues of "post-abortion talk lines; pursuit of reproductive justice; plus-size fashion support; support for transgender rights; male feminism; sex work acceptance; and developing media including feministing, racialicious, blogs, and Twitter campaigns".
There has been trending hashtags #YesAllWomen and #StandWithWendy. Bustle claim the fourth-wave is "queer, sex-positive, trans-inclusive, body-positive, and digitally driven".
Conclusion
Feminist movement history is filled with diverse objectives and positions.
These waves may have different perceptions, but they will make a difference by empowering and creating a balance within the society.
As society is never static and will change for establishing parity. ■ Dr Sakul Kundra is an assistant professor in history at Fiji National University. He has a PhD in history from Jawaharlal Nehru University and is a gold medalist in PGD in Education, USP. The views expressed are his own and not of this newspaper or his employer. For comments or suggestions, email. dr.sakulkundra@gmail.com