The Mechanics of Writing: punctuation and cliches

These are the real ‘nuts and bolts’ of writing and with a little practice, you can master their everyday use. Compiled by Paula Allen of Yeats College.

PUNCTUATION

The correct use of punctuation will contribute greatly to the readability of your essays and impress teachers and examiners. Hence, it is essential that you spend some time learning how to correctly use the most common forms of punctuation.

TYPES OF PUNCTUATION

There are two types of punctuation. 1. Punctuation at the end of a sentence 2. Punctuation within a sentence

There are three types of punctuation we use at the end of sentences.

1. Full stop - .

2. Question mark - ?

3. Exclamation mark - !

Although you’d imagine these should be easy to get right, mistakes are common.

THE FULL STOP

The full stop is the most important piece of punctuation. It is used to mark the end of a sentence. A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.

For example:

Mary decided to go for a walk.

It is easy to see that this is a full sentence; hence it requires a full stop, but problems arise when we add to that sentence.

For example:

Since it was a lovely day Mary decided to go for a walk as it suddenly began to rain within a few minutes she was drenched feeling thoroughly disgusted she took the bus home.

Where should the full stops go in this passage? How many full sentences are there? We still have the first sentence, “Mary decided to go for a walk” but it has been extended by ‘Since it was a lovely day” at the beginning and ‘as it suddenly…” at the end. Now most of these additions are not full sentences in themselves; they are fragments that tell us more about the walk Mary took, so where would you put the first full stop and how many more are required to correctly punctuate this passage?

Rewrite the passage, inserting full stops where appropriate.

Since it was a lovely day Mary decided to go for a walk as it suddenly began to rain within a few minutes she was drenched feeling thoroughly disgusted she took the bus home

Correct version:

Since it was a lovely day, Mary decided to go for a walk. As it suddenly began to rain, within a few minutes she was drenched.

Feeling thoroughly disgusted, she took the bus home.

Full stops are often used incorrectly or inappropriately.

For example:

1. When the meeting ended. 2. Because I forgot the game was on today.

These are not complete sentences; they are sentence fragments. Therefore, it is inappropriate to use a full stop.

To make a complete sentence, you have to add to the fragment.

For example:

1. When the meeting ended, everyone went home. 2. I didn’t turn up because I forgot the game was on today. Many students also forget or neglect to use a full stop at the end of a proper sentence.

For example:

Incorrect: He gave the essay to his teacher it was corrected and returned.

These are two complete sentences and should be punctuated as such.

Correct: He gave his essay to the teacher. It was corrected and returned.

Abbreviations

Full stops should be used when words are abbreviated.

For example:

Nov. Aug. Rev. Capt.

However, a full stop is not required when a word ends with the same letter as the complete word.

For example:

Mr Dr Mrs Ms Col

QUESTION MARK

A question mark must be inserted after every direct question. Many students forget to use a question mark and instead insert a full stop.

For example:

Incorrect: Why do young people drink so much. Correct: Why do young people drink so much?

Also remember if you ask a series of questions, each one requires a full stop in its own right.

Incorrect: Where did you go. Did you enjoy it. Was it a good film. Would you recommend it?

Correct: Where did you go? Did you enjoy it? Was it a good film? Would you recommend it? However, a question mark is not required at the end of an indirect question.

For example:

My teacher asked me why I had not handed in my essay. The tour guide asked if I had enjoyed the trip. Remember. You cannot use a full stop and a question mark at the same time. To avoid making this mistake, think of the dot at the bottom of the question mark as a full stop.

EXCLAMATION MARK

Exclamation marks should always be used sparingly.

Example:

Use an exclamation mark at the end of an emphatic declaration, interjection or command. What a dreadful story!

“No!” she screamed, “I will not go with you!” Do it, now!

However, there are very few instances when you would use an exclamation mark in academic essays, so it is probably best to just avoid them altogether.

IN-SENTENCE PUNCTUATION

General rules for using capital letters 1. All sentences must begin with a capital letter. 2. Direct speech within a sentence begins with a capital letter. For example: As Millie looked wistfully out to sea, Jean asked, “Are you still thinking about him?”

3. The word ‘I’ is always written as a capital. 4. Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter, e.g. - John, Nora, Germany, Berlin, Ireland, Sunday, Mount Blanc, Aran Islands, etc. 5. Adjectives formed from proper nouns also take a capital, e.g. Italian, German, Irish, Freudian. 6. Titles of books, journals, newspapers, songs, ships, hotels, etc. use capitals

7. With longer titles, the first word and last word always take a capital, e.g. The Irish Times, The Guardian. All other words in the title also takes a capital except for very small words such as: and, to, of, the, if, etc.

For example: How Many Miles to Babylon?

Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire.

The following are the most common forms of insentence punctuation: comma, semi-colon, colon, hyphen, dash, apostrophe, brackets, and inverted commas.

COMMAS

Commas are used to indicate a slight pause in a sentence. They are often used at the writer’s discretion. Consider the two sentences below and think about the difference the comma makes. He ran into the room and there she stood.

He ran into the room, and there she stood.

So, although it can be up to the writer to decide when to use a comma, there are times when it is essential.

For example:

Commas are used to separate items on a list. They are placed between each item except the last two which are generally separated by ‘and’.

(Note: there are differing opinions on this, so I have chosen the most common form.)

Example:

1. He bought potatoes, carrots, turnips, celery and lettuce.

2. She has a rabbit, a tortoise, a piglet and three pet mice.

Try it yourself!

Put commas into the following sentences:

1. He plays tennis basketball soccer rugby and darts.

2. He ran down the corridor past the manager’s office across the carpark and out into the roadway.

3. The builders unloaded scaffolding timber saws hammers and bricks before they started work. 4. She splashed out on a new house a red Mercedes a designer handbag a lovely puppy and a divorce! 5. He loves the colours red green yellow brown and orange.

6. She was short plump and very pretty.

7. He was dark mysterious handsome and romantic. 8. An ominous creepy sinister feeling came over her. 9. Young people today are rude unruly angry irritating and out of control.

10. He hit the ball dropped the bat and ran to first base.

11. Mary Ryan is an attractive gracious lady. 12. There were all sorts of old clothes shoes and linen in the closet.

13. Jim Ryan Johnny Maloney and Jason Barrett all play in goal.

14. I really like apples cakes oranges and grapes.

ANSWERS

1. He plays tennis, basketball, soccer, rugby and darts.

2. He ran down the corridor, past the manager’s office, across the carpark and out into the roadway.

3. The builders unloaded scaffolding, timber, saws, hammers and bricks before they started work.

4. She splashed out on a new house, a red Mercedes, a designer handbag, a lovely puppy and a divorce!

5. He loves the colours red, green, yellow, brown and orange.

6. She was short, plump and very pretty.

7. He was dark, mysterious, handsome and romantic.

8. An ominous, creepy and sinister feeling came over her.

9. Young people today are rude, unruly, angry, irritating and out of control.

10.He hit the ball, dropped the bat and ran to first base.

11. Mary Ryan is an attractive, gracious lady.

12.There were all sorts of old clothes, shoes and linen in the closet.

13.Jim Ryan, Johnny Maloney and Jason Barrett all play in goal.

14.I really like apples, cakes, oranges and grapes. Commas are also used either side of a phrase or clause that could be left out of a sentence without changing its meaning. Use one comma to indicate the beginning of the pause and one to indicate the end.

Example:

1. Dublin, the capital of Ireland, is a beautiful city. 2. She studied hard, day after day, until she knew it all.

Insert commas in the following sentences. 1. Mr Jones my favourite lecturer has a great sense of humour.

2. Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface.

3. Mary Shelley’s early works I believe stand the test of time.

4. Waistcoats which were once popular have been out of fashion for years.

5. Mr and Mrs Smith our neighbours sat beside us in the cinema.

6. The problems involved in family rows are I think very serious.

7. Maria who normally says very little said she did not want to go to the shops.

8. I believe therefore that canteens are a good idea in schools.

9. The Aran Islands located off the Irish coast are an interesting place to visit.

10.Did you know that James Dean the wonderful film actor was also a film critic?

11. Berlin the venue for the 1936 Olympic games is a wonderful holiday destination.

12.Joseph who is nine loves sport.

13. Annie my sister’s daughter was late for school today.

14.Miriam who is tall and slim looked lovely in her new dress. 15.Eleanor who is thirty today went to a big party. 16.John her husband of forty years just walked out for good. 17.Jim a really nice man and a friend of mine was arrested for shoplifting. 18.She walked into the room which was empty and sat down beside the fire. 19.Were you aware that Jimmy a racing driver was done for speeding?

20. That school which is in Galway has a great reputation.

ANSWERS

1. Mr Jones, my favourite lecturer, has a great sense of humour.

2. Oil, which is lighter than water, rises to the surface.

3. Mary Shelley’s early works, I believe, stand the test of time.

4. Waistcoats, which were once popular, have been out of fashion for years.

5. Mr and Mrs Smith, our neighbours, sat beside us in the cinema.

6. The problems involved in family rows are, I think, very serious.

7. Maria, who normally says very little, said she did not want to go to the shops.

8. I believe, therefore, that canteens are a good idea in schools.

9. The Aran Islands, located off the Irish coast, are a great place to visit. 10. Did you know that James Dean, the wonderful film actor, was also a film critic? 11. Berlin, the venue for the 1936 Olympic games, is a wonderful holiday destination. 12. Joseph, who is nine, loves sport. 13. Annie, my sister’s daughter, was late for school today.

14. Miriam, who is tall and slim, looked lovely in her new dress.

15. Eleanor, who is thirty today, went to a big party.

16. John, her husband of forty years, just walked out for good.

17. Jim, a really nice man and a friend of mine, was arrested for shoplifting.

18. She walked into the room, which was empty, and sat down beside the fire.

19. Were you aware that Jimmy, a racing driver, was done for speeding?

20. That school, which is in Galway, has a great reputation.

Use a comma at the end of an introductory phrase: Example:

1. When he was found not guilty, the accused felt very relieved.

2. When you reach the fork in the road, you have to decide which direction to take.

Put commas into the following sentences: 1. Racing for the ball the two players crashed into each other.

2. When you get to this level one option must be chosen.

3. Little John sat in a corner of the room holding a puppy in his arms.

4. To avoid a row Laurie left the room.

5. As the boat turned six sharks circled it. 6. Since we moved to a new house our electricity bill has doubled.

7. Having chosen to be a teacher Catherine knew she’d have to work very hard.

8. Usually I have time for breakfast.

9. When he was at school he was known as a good sportsman.

10. Nevertheless I think she’s lovely.

11. Of course once I got there it was all over.

12. To get an idea of costs he sent for the builder. 13. This is an eloquent description of dementia a very serious illness for which there is no known cure.

14. The poet shows a desire for self-harm thrusting her hand among the flames.

15. When the mouse ran across the kitchen floor she jumped onto the table in fright.

16. To give David a good look at the new house Mr Jones drove him there. 17. Nevertheless I want to go to the reception. 18. As soon as the crash happened a reporter rushed to the scene.

19. Despite these findings by the auditor a director of the company said the accounts were in order. 20. At this point all we know is that the two cars collided at high speed.

ANSWERS

1. Racing for the ball, the two players crashed into each other.

2. When you get to this level, one option must be chosen.

3. Little John sat in a corner of the room, holding a puppy in his arms.

4. To avoid a row, Laurie left the room.

5. As the boat turned, six sharks circled it. 6. Since we moved to a new house, our electricity bill has doubled.

7. Having chosen to be a teacher, Catherine knew she’d have to work very hard. 8. Usually, I have time for breakfast.

9. When he was at school, he was known as a good sportsman.

10. Nevertheless, I think she’s lovely.

11. Of course, once I got there it was all over. 12. To get an idea of costs, he sent for the builder.

13. This is an eloquent description of dementia, a very serious illness for which there is no known cure.

14. The poet shows a desire for self-harm, thrusting her hand among the flames. 15. When the mouse ran across the kitchen floor, she jumped onto the table in fright. 16. To give David a good look at the new house, Mr Jones drove him there. 17. Nevertheless, I want to go to the reception. 18. As soon as the crash happened, a reporter rushed to the scene.

19. Despite these findings by the auditor, a director of the company said the accounts were in order.

20. At this point, all we know is that the two cars collided at high speed.