Information processing

Good day, students. This is lesson 31 in our series. In this week’s lesson, we will begin to look at some of the key concepts of the unit called Information Processing.

In our first lesson, we looked at the difference between the terms ‘data’ and ‘information’. For the purpose of this unit, I will be reminding you of the definition of the terms. Data is a set of raw facts and figures that a computer processes by following a set of instructions called a program, while information is the processed data which is meaningful and useful.

The term ‘information processing’ refers to the collection, storing, interpretation and retrieving of data. Depending on the data inputted, a particular output is provided. Many of the devices we use today involve the processing and interpretation of a particular input (data). For example, with an electric kettle, once the water is boiled at a desired temperature, the sensor will activate a switch to have the kettle turn off. At an ATM, based on your input, you can either make a deposit, do a withdrawal, top up your phone with credit, and so on.

FORMS OF INFORMATION PROCESSING

The different forms of information processing are as follows: automation, process control, commercial, industrial and scientific data processing; information retrieval and management. Let us examine each the forms listed above.

AUTOMATION

This is where several tasks are performed with the use of computers and other automated machinery for the execution of tasks with little or no human input or control. Companies automate for many reasons. Increased productivity is normally the primary reason for many companies desiring a competitive advantage. Automation can also reduce human error and thus improve quality. Other reasons to automate include the presence of a hazardous working environment and the high cost of human labour.

PROCESS CONTROL

A control system is a device or set of devices to manage, command, direct or regulate the behaviour of other devices or systems. Process control is extensively used in industries and enables mass production of continuous processes such as oil refining, paper manufacturing, chemicals, power plants and many others. Process control enables automation, with which a small staff of operating personnel can operate a complex process from a central control room. Control systems are also utilised in our homes, for example, a washing machine; when we commute to school and our workplaces, where traffic lights control the flow of traffic; and heat sensors used in buildings and so on.

COMMERCIAL

When we speak about commercial, we are specifically making reference to how information processing affects the way we do business. You can now do online banking or purchase items online, and make deposits and withdrawals at an ATM without having to go to a bank. In addition, every transaction that we make, whether online, at a supermarket (point-of-sale terminal) or an ATM, etc, is recorded and the respective accounts of customers are updated. Moreover, the manner in which accounting practices are carried out and the payroll systems of organisations have changed. Information processing is now used to calculate the salaries and wages of employees. The pay slips of employees and annual financial reports can be generated and printed.

Electronic funds transfer is also now possible, where money can be transferred from one account to another without using cash or cheques.

INDUSTRIAL

Similar points that were mentioned when we looked at process control would be dealt with here. Both the manufacturing and production industries utilise information processing for the generating or production of a particular product. Computers are used to control and monitor tasks done and are generally considered to be more accurate, efficient and faster than the average human. Robots are particularly used for the manufacturing of cars and for assembling electronic items.

SCIENTIFIC

Expert systems are used extensively in this area. An expert system is a program that reproduces the knowledge and thought processes of human experts in certain well-defined fields, namely medicine, geology and chemistry. Scientists are able to retrieve, analyse and use data stored in such systems. Other areas where scientific information processing is utilised include weatherforecasting systems, the medical field for the monitoring of patient’s records, and for carrying out surgical operations (use of robots) and laboratories for analysing data from samples.

SOURCES OF DATA – SOURCE DOCUMENTS

Data that is stored in a particular database or information system will need to be accurate, up to date and structured in a way that makes it possible to search for specific data stored on a suitable storage medium.

A source document is any document where its content (data that has been captured) is keyed in by an employee, namely a data-entry clerk, into a computer system. Data can be ascertained by two means: by machine or human-readable documents. When the necessary data have been entered on a form, for example, a questionnaire, it is normally keyed into a computer system for future use and update.

HUMAN-READABLE DOCUMENTS

This is a document that is normally filled out by humans and can be read by humans. This document is usually built and structured to facilitate the filling out of data by hand. Acquiring data by this means can prove to be challenging for several reasons. The person filling out the document may misunderstand the questions asked, the handwriting may be difficult to read and understand, and there is also the possibility of someone leaving out some sections of the document.

Some of these problems could be alleviated by instructing the individual to write using capital letters, or by having a series of boxes place on the document to allow for the separation of letters or numbers. Such documents can be seen at the bank for making cash deposits, where one has to write the account number in subsequent boxes, or when one fills out the form to collect money from a Western Union agency.

MACHINE-READABLE DOCUMENTS

This type of document is one such means of alleviating some of the challenges of human-readable documents, where instead of filling out the data by hand, the form is marked by some means. A particular scanner or reader is usually used to scan the document and identify the marks made by the human. The drawback to this, however, is that only selected types of data can be processed by such machines. The multiple-choice papers you would have shaded for an e-learning examination or mock examination would be an example of machine-readable documents. At a point-of-sale terminal when a particular item is swiped by a barcode reader, the barcodes printed on the product are also said to be machinereadable.

TURNAROUND DOCUMENTS

A turnaround document is considered to be both a humanreadable and machine-readable document, as a machine creates the document and the human will add information to the document created. The data added can be further treated as new data to be keyed in back into the system. In addition, the data keyed into the system can be further processed or updated by the system. Examples of such documents include utility bills and prescription forms. So, when you get a chance, examine the utility bills of your parents or guardians and you will observe it is readable by humans and also includes a barcode section.

METHODS OF VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION OF DATA

Before we examine the different methods of verification and validation of data, we need to examine some errors that may occur during the entry of data into a computer system or the sending of data.

TRANSMISSION ERRORS

This is when data received by a computer or system is not the same as what was sent by another computer, which could be as a result of an electrical fault or faulty cabling, as well as due to the computer used to send the data.

TYPOGRAPHICAL ERRORS

These are errors made typically by humans when typing data. This can also be said to be an accidental error (error that is not made on purpose). For example, typing in a wrong date of birth.

TRANSPOSITION ERRORS

These are errors made when numbers or characters are placed in the wrong order. An example of this could be when we are typing a date of birth for someone who was born on the 12th of September 1998 and type 09/12/98 instead of the 12/09/98.

Some errors can also be considered to be deliberate, where errors are made by humans intentionally for personal gain or just to create disruption. For example, someone may falsify a document to gain acceptance into an institution or for a scholarship.

There are two ways of preventing errors made by humans: they are data verification and data validation. Data verification is a process carried out by humans, whereas data validation is an automatic process carried out by software.

DATA VERIFICATION

The errors we examined in the previous lesson would warrant the need for data verification. Data verification is the process of checking for errors that may have been entered in the computer from a source document, or when data is copied from one medium or device to another. Two methods of data verification are double entry and proofreading/visual checks.

The double-entry method is the process of entering data more than once using a program that checks each second entry against the first. If the data entered is not the same, it will not get processed and the system will allow for the re-entry of data to ensure the data entered is accurate. An example of this process would be when you are required to enter your password twice, when setting up your email, to confirm your password.

Proofreading, on the other hand, checks the data entered against the data on the original source document. This method can be time-consuming as it requires the user to read the information from the source document and check it against what was entered in the system.

Visual checks utilise on-screen prompts. When a set of data is entered, it is redisplayed on the screen. The user is prompted to read it and give a confirmation that the data entered is correct. If the data is incorrect, the data has to be re-entered. Remember, if you fail to prepare, you prepare to fail.