Early western educational activities among the Mafwe

Understanding power dynamics that allow rape culture to persist

EARLY western educational activities in the Caprivi (now Zambezi) started when David Livingstone, a London Missionary Society evangelist visited both Sebitwane and Sekeletu in 1851 and 1855 at Linyandi and Malengalenga, respectively. The missionary sought to establish a school, but the muddy conditions especially at Sekeletu’s capital, (Malengalenga) impeded his intentions. It was this background laid by David Livingstone, which led other missionaries to establish schools and mission stations in the region and Bulozi of Western Province of Zambia.

Helmore and Price’s 1860 expedition

Another expedition to establish a Mission Station at Linyanti was led by James Helmore and Roger Price in 1860 (Buys and Nambala 2003, Pretorius, 1975). This expedition ended in failure and tragedy that only Roger Price and two of the Helmore children survived to reach Kuruman in South Africa (Kruger, 1984).

The missionaries were given poisoned ox meat and the Helmores and Mrs. Price succumbed to the poison and died. The tragedy that befell the missionaries was Sekeletu’s suspicion of the new arrivals and disappointed at the absence of David Livingstone, who had indicated to build a missionary station at Linyanti and serve as the intermediary who would prevent the Matebele from attacking the Makololo.

Anotherreasonwasthedisappearance of 120 carriers who had accompanied Livingstone to the east coast several years before which soured the Makololo. Sekeletu realized the impact Western education and influence would have on his subjects, by adhering to foreign Western religion. Roger Price and John Mckenzie twice prepared to make another effort, but the increasing unrest in the Kololo empire and the years of bloodshed between 1865 and 1885 withheld them from realizing that (Northcott,1961).

Reverend Reed of the London Missionary Society

Another missionary expedition to penetrate the Mamili area was that of Reverend Reed of the London Missionary Society towards the end of the First World War. His canoe was overturned by a hippopotamus and as a result, he contacted malaria and died (Schwarz, 1928).

Paris Missionary Society

Other missionary pioneers notably the Paris Missionary Society followed but only managed to build the first school at Sesheke (now in Western Province of Zambia) in 1887 pioneered by Francois Coillard. By that time, the Zambezi Region still resorted under the Luyana kingdom. Reports of the Bechuanaland Protectorate Administration of 1925 indicate that there were Seventh Day Adventist schools at Katima Mulilo and Linyanti and others in other parts of the Region under its management. . Gilbert Willmore was the first Resident Missionary and consequently followed and succeeded by others. The two schools relied on the fees paid by parents and moneys raised from the communities (Kruger, 1984).

In 1939, the Union of South Africa took over the Caprivi Region from the Administration of South West Africa and in 1940; the school at Linyanti was re-opened. Because of the Second World War, the Seventh Day Adventist Church with its regional headquarters in Bulawayo, (Zimbabwe) found itself unable to satisfy what the Administration of the Union of South Africa expected of it in terms of a better curriculum. It withdrew its White missionary staff and abandoned the Katima Mulilo Mission Station and the management of the schools. The Mission also complained of apathy and failure of discipline on the part of the parents and no backing from the traditional authorities (Kruger, 1984).

Bush schools

There were bush schools at Sibbinda and Makanga through self-help initiatives. The learners met under a tree every day and the teachers from the local communities, who mastered the Ten Commandments, taught them. Despite their defects, bush schools rendered a great service because they enabled the learners some basics to read and write although neglected, poor and under-supervised. The buildings were usually shacks of mud and grass thatched structures and sometimes learners were taught under trees, hence no classes during rainy seasons. The curriculum comprised of three R’s (reading, writing and basic arithmetic), gardening, local crafts and character development through moral and religious instruction and practice.

Roman Catholic Church

The withdrawal of the Seventh Day Adventists brought the Roman Catholics to the Caprivi in 1944, who were well established at Sichili in Zambia and their regional headquarters at Victoria Falls. The Roman Catholics first established their school at Lisikili and later moved to Katima Mulilo in 1945 (Kruger, 1984).

Sibbinda Primary School

After a journey on foot of almost 200 km from Katima Mulilo via Linyanti to Sibbinda, Father Albius held discussions with the community at Sibbinda in 1948 pertaining to the possibility of opening a school there. On 16 August 1949, Sibbinda Primary School opened its doors to some learners who were schooling at Linyanti and others who were picked and recruited in the vicinity (Sibbinda Primary School History, 1994). Sesheke Primary School was opened in 1950. There were 15 schools in the Caprivi by 1959, of which the outlaying ones went up to Standard 2 (Grade 4) except for the one at Katima Mulilo, which offered Standard V1 (Grade 8). One Bantu Community School was established at Kanono in 1960 (Kruger, 1984).

In the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s many primary and secondary schools were established in the Region. During this period (particularly in the sixties), many young girls were picked by the Roman Catholic Church and gave them free primary education at Pius Girls School.

Capitalism, the Christian religion and the patriarchal structure of Namibian society have allowed the scourge of rape culture to continue unabated.

At the highest echelons of party politics, secretary general of Swapo Party Sofia Shaningwa reportedly responded to a question from a journalist, regarding the appointment of an alleged (his case is still under appeal in the supreme court) rape perpetrator Vincent Likoro to the party “think tank” as having ‘nothing to do with her’ because she doesn’t involve herself in bedroom stories.

Rape culture is so embedded in Namibian society that even women, who are some of the most vulnerable members of society, have come to accept it as something that is somewhat normal if Sofia Shaningwa’s utterances are anything to go by.

Some women have even defended the act when those implicated are their husbands, brothers, fathers or sons. In an article, titled ‘Think Tank and Rape Apologists’ by gender activist Ndilokelwa Nthengwa, she quotes statistics from the ‘Prioritised National Plan of Action on Gender-Based Violence 2019-2023’, which reveals that 93% of perpetrators of sexual violence and domestic violence are men and 86% of victims/survivors are women.

These disproportionate statistics painfully shows the obvious – even to the most unassuming mind – that women are victims of sexual and gender-based violence at the hands of men.

These are not ‘bedroom stories’’; sexual and gender-based violence is a societal concern that should be confronted head-on.

How the system failed a five-year-old

On 5 August 2019, a daily newspaper reported how ex-convict 50-year-old Jeremiah Van Wyk, who had, at the time, recently been released from prison after having served a 15-year sentence for rape and murder, abducted, kidnapped and raped a five-year-old child after he had convinced a teacher to release her into his care at a daycare centre in the Windhoek suburb of Khomasdal.

Van Wyk admitted to the court that he was indeed guilty of the actions for which he was charged when he appeared a week after his arrest.

He attributed his actions to the fact that he was under the influence of drugs and alcohol at the time.

However, the magistrate in the case was not satisfied with his plea and remanded him in custody for “further police investigations”.

His case is still ongoing, despite the fact that he admitted guilt on the charges because the Magistrate felt that due process should be followed and Van Wyk should be afforded legal representation due to the seriousness of the charges he is facing.

The issue regarding a sex offender register has been brought up by activists as the Ministry of Justice continues to finalise the new combating of rape act that seeks to replace the Combating of Rape Act (No.8 of 2000). However, the question remains, how could a teacher at the daycare centre allow a stranger to pick up a five-year-old when the only people who were mandated to do so were the child’s parents and an elder sister, according to the indemnity form signed by the parents?

Not to point fingers or apportion blame, but society in general and in this particular case, the teacher at hand, are just as complicit in the rape of the five-year-old as Van Wyk is.

Society was not supposed to allow for Van Wyk to be in the same vicinity as children and the teacher was supposed to be extra cautious and vigilant to not have allowed the child to be abducted by Jeremiah in the first place. How the justice system continues to fail our women The Namib Times of Friday 8 October 2021 reported that 59-year-old Sam Halupe appeared in the Swakopmund Magistrate’s Court on a charge of rape. Sam Halupe is the owner of multiple businesses in the coastal town, which include Makiti Bar, Strong Bar and Roots Bar.

The twenty-six-year-old complainant says Halupe drove her to a secluded area along the SwakopmundHentiesbay road and forced himself on her. She says he raped her, and she opened a case with the police under case number CR/02/10/2021.

He was subsequently arrested on Monday the 4 October and appeared in court on Tuesday, 5 of

October, after which he was granted bail in the amount of N$3 000.

Capitalism and sexual assault

Sharon Smith posits in an article, titled ‘Capitalism and sexual assault: Toward a more comprehensive understanding’ that, “Sexual assault is not inflicted by the system as a whole, but by individual people. Nevertheless, women’s oppression does not originate with individual people; it stems from institutional inequality that is organized from above, in the traditional family structure, the legal system and other social structures that define women as secondclass citizens. It can, therefore, be ended at the individual or personal level only if we do away with the capitalist system”.

Smith continues to argue that: “Marxists understand that police and other law enforcement agencies function as an armed wing of the capitalist state, enforcing laws that maintain class and social inequality”. This is exactly what the complainant in the Halupe case alleges when recounting her treatment by the police when she went to report the case and the subsequent days thereafter.

According to the complainant, because she was known to the accused and they had been acquaintances, the police placed doubts on her allegations of rape.

She further said she has been approached by the family of the accused with monetary compensation if she withdraws the case because, if she does pursue the case she may lose and walk away with nothing, they advised her to take the money.

Knowing the Namibian justice system, many more people would advise her to take the money because it doesn’t seem to protect the victim but rather the perpetrator.

Christianity

Christianity has always been a problematic religion – not only in regard to documented cases of sexual abuse in the church but also about the predominant message in the Christian church that places women in a subservient position to men in society. This includes the family structure and intimate relationships such as marriage. The church, over the centuries, has been an enabler of sexual abuse against women and children.

Patriarchy

Patriarchy, according to feminist literature, is a term used to describe the uneven power relation between men and women in society. It is described as a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women.

The patriarchal structure of society allows for the secretary general of the Swapo Party, Sofia Shaningwa, to defend the appointment of a convicted rapist to the Party Think Tank as a situation that doesn’t require her attention because it is a ‘bedroom story’. Patriarchy allows for young five-year-olds to be picked by total strangers at a daycare centre because the teacher views men, even men like Jeremiah Van Wyk, as authorities to be believed when they show up unannounced at a daycare centre.

Patriarchy allows for a Swakopmund businessman to be released on bail a day after his arrest because he had known his victim and the police doubt her story because she was an acquaintance.

As a society, we have to do more to protect the Namibian girl child; we have to do more to ensure that our women are safe.

As a society, we have to break down the systems of oppression that make women second-class citizens in a world where they should not only be regarded but should be treated as equals.

If these systems are not systematically dismantled, the scourge of sexual and gender-based violence against women and children will continue unabated – and when the situation reaches crisis proportion (which it already has), we would only have ourselves to blame.