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“THE CIVIL WARS ARE LARGELY UNDERREPRESENTED ON MAINSTREAM SHELVES AND BROADCAST SCHEDULES, BUT HERE NICK LIPSCOMBE HAS APPLIED HIS METICULOUS TOUCH TO THE TOPIC”
The Covid-19 pandemic has seen cultural venues, including museums, temporarily close across the world. Military museums have been no exception but as lockdown measures are being slowly lifted across England, historical venues are cautiously reopening. This includes major centres for military history that include the National Army Museum, Royal Air Force Museum, Tank Museum and many more with heavy precautions in place.
Major military museums are conforming to the latest British Government and Industry Covid-19 guidelines that have a recognised process in place to maintain cleanliness and aid social distancing. Booking tickets is strongly advised across the board and onsite cash handling is being minimised with ‘contactless’ bank cards being the preferred method of payment. Wearing a face mask is encouraged as of mid-july 2020 and museum staff members are being trained in prevention and the use of Personal Protective Equipment. Where appropriate, museums are staggering entries and offer safe one-way routes around their venues. Cleaning regimes have also increased with hand-sanitising stations being placed at entrances with additional stations along routes. As part of the reopening of museums, some parts of each particular venue will remain temporarily closed to increase visitor safety. The National Army Museum for instance is closing its café, cloakroom, lunch room and the Play Base for children.
Britain’s national military history museum, the Imperial War Museum, has five branches in England – IWM London, IWM Duxford, IWM North in Greater Manchester, the Churchill
War Rooms and HMS Belfast. All of these have reopened since 1 August 2020 with the exception of HMS Belfast because of its small rooms, ladders, narrow corridors and closequarters access issues.
Historic ships like HMS Belfast are likely to be the last military attractions to reopen. This includes HMS Victory, HMS Warrior and other vessels belonging to the National Museum of the Royal Navy. However, parts of naval attractions like Portsmouth Historic Dockyard are reopening so check each museum’s website for information before booking a visit.
Restrictions also apply to military history venues that are not museums. Organisations such as the National Trust and English
Heritage request bookings for attractions such as castles and will turn people away who arrive without booked tickets. Although this will slightly alter people’s experiences, they are designed to ensure everyone’s safety. Moreover, heritage organisations and military museums are keen to emphasise that visitors will still be able to enjoy exploring history and they will still be given a warm, safe welcome from staff and volunteers.
Perched on a basalt outcropping on the northern coast of County Antrim, Dunluce Castle is one of the most romantic ruins in Northern Ireland. A fortress has existed on the site since the 13th century although the present castle dates from the early 16th century. Built by the Mcquillan lords of Route, Dunluce was seized by both the Ulster Clan Macdonnell and
Scottish Clan Macdonald of Dunnyveg during the 1500s. Its most famous owner was the warrior chieftain Sorely Boy Macdonnell who renovated the castle in a Scottish style. During the Spanish Armada of 1588, the Spanish galleass La Girona was wrecked nearby during a storm. Its cannons were installed in the gatehouse while funds from the retrieved cargo were used to restore the fortress.
Now ruined, Dunluce is still owned by the Macdonnell family but it is currently managed by the Northern Irish Environment Agency. From 6 July 2020 it is open during the summer between 9.30am5.00pm daily. The castle is accessible by a bridge that links it to the mainland although there is limited access for wheelchair users. All children must be accompanied by an adult and no dogs are allowed except for assistance dogs. For intrepid visitors, Dunluce is also close to the iconic Giant’s Causeway rock formation, which is less than five miles away.
Established in the early 2nd century during the reign of Emperor Hadrian, Hardknott Roman Fort lies at an altitude of 800 feet over the River Esk in Cumbria. At one time it was garrisoned by Cohors IV Delmatarum, an auxiliary unit of approximately 500 infantrymen from the Balkans. The fort was initially demilitarised in the late 130s after the Roman occupation of southern Scotland. Emperor Marcus Aurelius re-garrisoned Hardknott in the 160s before it was abandoned in the early 3rd century.
Hardknott was a small fort of three acres, four gates and lookout towers. Its wellmarked remains include a headquarters building, commandant’s house, two granaries and a bath house. A parade ground also survives 200 yards east of the fort.
The fort is owned by the National Trust but is maintained by English Heritage. It can be visited at any reasonable time during daylight hours and there is parking space available for cars near the site just off the Hardknott Pass. Due to its remote location, the fort is not easily accessible because the Pass must first be navigated before a hike to the site. Two other Roman sites can also be visited in the local area – a nearby bath house at Ravenglass and Ambleside Fort on the northern shore of Lake Windermere.
On 26 September 1943, the quiet town of Launceston was disturbed by a dramatic firefight between black and white American soldiers. Two white military policemen of 115th Infantry Regiment were wounded in the presence of British civilians and servicemen and this small but alarming incident escalated into a newspaper sensation that was mired in controversy.
The subsequent court-martial of the African American soldiers from 581st Ordnance Ammunition Company occurred in the seaside town of Paignton, Devon. Labelled by the tabloids as a “Wild West” mutiny, it was a far more serious affair that caused Winston Churchill “grave anxiety”. The Launceston shootout damningly exposed violent racial tensions within the US Armed Forces and – in the court of public opinion – the British openly sided with the discriminated black soldiers.
Long forgotten as a wartime footnote,
British historian Kate Werran has uncovered this previously neglected story in her book
An American Uprising In Second World War England.
She discusses how the incident debunks myths about the ‘Special Relationship’, Anglo-american tensions over segregation and its relevance today in a world where racial tensions remain at the forefront of political discussion.
SEGREGATION AND THE ‘SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP’
My dad is from Launceston and when his family moved there in 1947 the talk of the town was this big shooting. Everyone wondered what happened to the American soldiers who were involved and nobody knew. We used to go to Launceston and there are still bullet holes in the war memorial and White Hart Hotel.
I became a film and television producer and thought, “I’ve got to investigate this story one day.” I put in a Freedom of Information request for a transcript of the court-martial and it turned up a year later on my doorstep. It was the most amazing bit of writing and was like a legal drama but I had my first baby and almost forgot about it. When the last of my four children went to primary school I dug it out again. I wanted it resolved and to find out what happened because nobody really knew and there didn’t seem to be a clear-cut answer.
They were segregated by their race, jobs and treatment. They wouldn’t even be allowed to go to dances in towns when they had their R&R. They weren’t given the same opportunities or facilities as their white counterparts. It was institutional racism by its very nature.
When they came over to Britain it was difficult. The US Army wanted to continue with segregation and automatically felt that this would mean segregated restaurants and pubs for the servicemen. That caused a problem in Britain because it was a country that had very few people of colour at the time. The British just weren’t used to this “colour bar” where the races were separated. It sat really uncomfortably because Britain was host to an overwhelming number of Americans before D-day and beyond.
We all have this rose-tinted view of what this ‘Special Relationship’ was but there were actually lots of government reports charting the difficulties that the British and Americans had. The Americans came with a more modern way of living and hated the weather and the way the British lived. They didn’t get the concept of rationing and were paid three times more the wages of British servicemen so there was bound to be clashes.
The segregation in particular sat really uncomfortably with the British and I think this is why the authorities were so keen to cover up the shootout in Launceston. They didn’t want people to know the court’s verdict because the British had great sympathy for the African Americans.
I found secret memos and letters in the archives that were sent to the Foreign Office by irate people who witnessed punch-ups between black and white GIS where the white officers stood by and did nothing. It got very nasty and the difficulty for the ‘Special Relationship’ was that the British sided with the African Americans because it was something they didn’t like. Mixed marriages were banned in the majority of the USA at the time so when white GIS saw white British women dating black soldiers it was like a red rag to a bull for many of them.
WHAT INSPIRED YOU TO WRITE THE BOOK?
HOW PREVALENT WAS INSTITUTIONAL RACISM IN THE US ARMED FORCES DURING WWII?
HOW GENUINE WAS THE ‘SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP’ BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND BRITAIN?
HOW WERE AFRICAN AMERICAN SOLDIERS RECEIVED BY BRITISH CIVILIANS?
The reception they had in all parts of Britain was incredibly welcoming. There is an apocryphal tale of a landlord who put out a sign outside his pub that said “This pub is reserved for Englishmen and Coloured Soldiers”. This did not apply to the white American soldiers so the British took the African Americans to their hearts. They couldn’t understand why they couldn’t serve people drinks if they were fighting. There is lots of evidence that the British made a real effort to treat the African Americans the same.
Walter White, who was in charge of the NAACP [National Association for the Advancement of Colored People], came over to investigate what was going on in Britain. There were rumours getting out of the sympathy that the British had for the ordinary African Americans who were coming over. His view was that most of the African Americans were posted to rural locations and a lot of them were themselves from the rural south. There was a therefore a synergy between the two different types of people who both had to work very hard for a living.
WHAT KIND OF RACIST INCIDENTS WOULD BE PERPETRATED BY WHITE AMERICAN SERVICEMEN AGAINST THEIR AFRICAN AMERICAN COUNTERPARTS?
The incidents would be as casual as kicking African Americans off a bus, out of restaurants, cinemas or off the street. One black serviceman said, “The only active service I ever see is when a gun is put to my head, I’m called the ‘n’ word and told to get back to base.”
It was often belligerent policing by the US Military Police and that was what really riled
the British. It was an egregious example of racism, particularly when they were told they couldn’t serve black soldiers. The British don’t like being told what to do, especially if they are being told by people who have a different way of dealing with society than they do.
One member of the Colonial Office said, “We have an empire with people of colour and we don’t want them to be treated like that.” That was the other problem because the Americans weren’t discriminating between different nationalities. They would treat Caribbean servicemen in the British forces the same way. There’s an incredibly sad case of a sergeant who was kicked out of a dance and he objected. He wrote a strong letter that said, “I’m putting my life on the line every night and yet I’m not allowed to go to a dance by the Americans.” This case wasn’t pursued because very sadly he was shot down a week after this incident.
WHAT IMPACT DID THE ARRIVAL OF AFRICAN AMERICAN TROOPS IN LAUNCESTON HAVE ON THE LOCAL POPULATION?
memorial where they found a cluster of white MPS and two US Army Jeeps.
It was just before pub closing time at 10.00pm and it was actually quite busy in the square where there were Land Army girls and British servicemen. A few words were uttered to the white MPS to the effect of, “Why aren’t we allowed to come into town?” It was enough to trigger a gunfight which involved the African American soldiers and the MPS who couldn’t believe this was happening. It became chaotic and two MPS were shot in the legs before the perpetrators melted away into the night. There was then a big round-up.
The interesting thing is that even army prosecutors said, “This is not attempted murder.” However, when the charges were brought they were attempted murder, riot and mutiny. It turned into a kangaroo court where not one of the white MPS could identify any of the defendants. Even the investigators couldn’t identify them and got the individuals confused. People misremembered facts and flip-flopped. One person got up and said, “This is not the report I gave the investigator.”
The main prosecuting lawyer was also very charismatic, knew what he wanted to say and kept getting back on track. I’m not sure if the defence was intentionally shoddy but they would make quite good points before letting it get away. The court-martial reads like a drama script but what happened was so sad and predictable to the defendants in the way they were treated. They didn’t have a fair trial but you can sense the British sympathy for them from reading the story.
The judge said at the beginning, “We’re not going to talk about race and are going to bar talking about it.” However, a plucky journalist pointed out, “We’ve already reported it,” which was a breakthrough moment because it meant the story could be reported in America. All of the British journalists had been trying to write about it but had been banned so it was a really good moment for the British tabloid press.
The trial became headline news everywhere and was likened to a Hollywood film because it was so dramatic. The courtroom had been rearranged to look like an American courtroom with huge Stars and Stripes flags but some witnesses also sat in deckchairs that had ‘Paignton District Council’ written on the back.
There were even newspaper editorials and it was a story that journalists wanted to write about. The reason is because they knew there was violence wherever black and white American soldiers met across Britain. The authorities were trying to keep a lid on it, ban the racial element and just describe it as a punch-up. Actually, the summer of 1943 was particularly bloody. There were riots in five US cities and I feel that this sort of violence came over and was being played out on British streets. The only thing was that when it was happening in the UK you had British people taking a view on it.
They were found guilty. When the army panel came back to court they wanted to check if the defendants had previous convictions. Very few of them had and if they did it was for very minor offences. These were young guys, most of them had families and they had no reason to want to go to prison.
It makes me so sad because when the courtmartial president came back he said, “We’ve found our verdict but we’re not going to report it.” Consequently, nobody knew the outcome and most thought that the defendants had been executed. They were actually sentenced to the minimum of 15 years hard labour with a maximum of 20 years.
“WE AIN’T NO SLAVES”
I think the threat is why the trial’s outcome was ultimately censored because there had been similar incidents. There was a huge shooting at Bamber Bridge, Lancashire, in June 1943 where an African American soldier was killed and there was an insurrection a few days afterwards in Corsham, Wiltshire. British people had crowded white GIS saying, “That’s not fair. That’s not democracy because you’re not treating them [the African American soldiers] the same.” One of the black sergeants involved even said, “We ain’t no slaves. This is England.”
This was happening all over Britain and I think the Paignton trial was censored by the US Army because the details were embarrassing.
There would have undoubtedly been racism in Britain but the British simply had a different view on colour and it was very awkward because they needed the ‘Special Relationship’ to work. It did work on many levels but on the issue of race it didn’t. There was always this middling tension that ebbed away at the relationship.
WHAT HAPPENED AT THE SUBSEQUENT COURTMARTIAL IN PAIGNTON?
HOW WAS THE TRIAL REPORTED?
Daily Mirror
WHAT WAS THE VERDICT OF THE TRIAL?
TO WHAT EXTENT DID THE TRIAL HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO THREATEN ANGLO-AMERICAN RELATIONS?
WHAT DID THE SHOOTOUT AND TRIAL SAY ABOUT THE BRITISH ATTITUDES TOWARDS AFRICAN AMERICAN SOLDIERS?
ARE THERE GROUNDS TO CALL WHAT HAPPENED IN LAUNCESTON A RACE RIOT?
Yes, absolutely. I think the African American soldiers had simply got to the end of their tether and pushed back. I think if they had intended to murder they would have done but they didn’t – they were making a point.
Don’t get me wrong, the two military policemen were badly injured but they didn’t receive life-threatening wounds and both ended up fighting at Omaha Beach. I think the black soldiers were simply saying, “That’s enough.” The people who remember them now in Launceston were children then and have nothing but affection for the African Americans.
WITH RECENT PROTESTS AND POLITICAL MOVEMENTS BRINGING THE ISSUES AROUND RACISM INTO FOCUS, TO WHAT EXTENT DOES THE LAUNCESTON SHOOTOUT AND PAIGNTON TRIAL RESONATE TODAY?
It feels very relevant. When I was researching it and considering what is happening now I think that everyone needs to be very truthful about what happened in the past. Only by being honest and recognising that things haven’t been done right can we go forward. We need to look at it all, both in America and Britain’s own colonial past, and teach it correctly. It’s part of both countries’ stories about how we were. We need to get beyond the sugar-coating of history but at least we’re now talking about it.
Kate Werran is the author
which is published by Pen & Sword History.
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of An American Uprising In Second World War England. Munity In The Duchy,
In the US, the debate continued as to whether the country should intervene in the war across the Atlantic or maintain its neutrality. Isolationists, or noninterventionists, many of whom would become part of the America First Committee pressure group, argued against providing military aid of any kind to foreign powers. Among the most prominent advocates of the isolationist position was Charles Lindbergh, the celebrated aviator, who in 1940 gave several speeches at rallies against American intervention. During a speech at Soldier Field, Chicago, Illinois, in August, he said, “If we desire to keep America out of war, we must take the lead in offering a plan for peace. That plan should be based upon the welfare of America … But it should not involve the internal affairs of Europe; they never were, and never will be, carried on according to our desires.”
“A PLAN FOR PEACE”
Troops on the march during Italy’s invasion of British Somaliland. After Mussolini’s declaration of war on Britain and France, Italian forces began offensives to seize Britain’s colonial possessions in Africa, expanding the country’s territory seized after the invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935-6. The British and colonial forces in the region were too few to put up much resistance and were decisively defeated during the Battle of Tug
Argan. The Royal Navy subsequently supported the evacuation of forces, leaving the region in Italian control.
“MADE IN GERMANY, FINISHED IN BRITAIN”
ITALIAN OCCUPATION OF SOMALILAND
and Fighter Command aircraft that engaged. There were 850 German sorties on this day alone, with 69 aircraft downed or severely damaged. A Home Guard unit in the area laid claim to bringing down this plane by rapid rifle fire, though this account has been disputed. A British Pathé newsreel later triumphantly claimed, in reference to the downed Dornier, “Made in Germany, finished in Britain.”
The English (or for some historians, the British) Civil Wars encompass a period of incredible change, with an incalculably long-lasting impact across the British Isles and beyond. It is an incredibly complex era, steeped in politics, as well as societal and religious upheaval. For the military historian, it is also a transitional moment in warfare, with firearms firmly at the fore, but lined up alongside thick pike formations and cavalry, resulting in rapidly changing battlefield tactics.
Perhaps because of this complexity, the
Civil Wars are largely underrepresented on mainstream shelves and broadcast schedules, but here Nick Lipscombe has applied his meticulous touch to the topic. For those unfamiliar with either the era, or the events of the Civil Wars, Lipscombe leaves no corner of confusion. As well as taking the reader through all 14 years of the wars chronologically, Lipscombe pauses in order to thoroughly explain everything from European infantry formations, to 17th century cavalry tactics.
A MUST-HAVE REFERENCE SOURCE FOR STUDENTS OF THE PERIOD, AND A MASTERFULLY MADE ROAD MAP FOR THOSE WANTING TO LEARN MORE
For readers less familiar with the topography of the British Isles in particular, the ‘Atlas’ element of this title is invaluable. As with his previous title, the author has mustered a host of incredibly detailed, yet easy-to-read maps and illustrations – 156 of them. As well as every major battle of the wars, including many lesserknown, these illustrate everything from the Royalist march on London, to the layout of the Palace of Westminster circa 1640, making the period feel wholly more accessible.
Though this tome is certainly not designed for a cover-to-cover cosy read (though some enthusiasts of the period may disagree) it is without doubt one of the most foremost reference sources on the Civil Wars available today. Including extensive indexing, glossary of terms and a heaped bibliography, it is not only clear the immense level of research and work that has gone into this project, but also the subsequent study and engagement it hopes to inspire in readers.
The Peninsular War Atlas,
This year is the 80th anniversary of the Battle of Britain, and is likely to see a mass of new publications on the subject, adding to the hundreds if not thousands already out there. Dilip Sarkar has written more than a few himself, and his name will be familiar to most aviation enthusiasts. Many of these new works will doubtless cover the usual ground in telling the dramatic and historically important story of the battle, but in this book Sarkar has managed to find a fresh and interesting angle. He has selected 23 men and women from a range of nationalities and services who were killed during the Battle of Britain, and uses their lives and deaths to bring out the human dimension. He includes not just RAF fighter pilots (British, Commonwealth and European), but also other RAF aircrew, ground crew and members of the Women’s Auxiliary Air Force. Uniquely he also includes an Indian merchant crewman who died of wounds after his convoy was attacked in the English Channel, two members of staff killed when the Supermarine factory in Southampton was bombed, and a German fighter pilot to round out his selection.
By selecting such a broad range of individuals, many of them from outside the ranks of ‘the Few’ (the recognised list of RAF fighter pilots who flew in the Battle of Britain), Sarkar brings many new angles to the story. Each chapter not only provides a well-researched biography of the individual(s), but also sheds light on their areas of work and personal viewpoints of the war. While the first chapter, a biography of a fighter pilot killed just before the traditional start date of the battle, also provides a potted history and overview of the battle as a whole, each following chapter also gives an insight into the background and experiences of a particular aspect of these historic events. In this way, the author includes a wealth of information on the battle by using their stories to also shine a light on particular units, nationalities, stations, aircraft, or sections of society. While famous figures such as Flight Lieutenant James Nicolson VC, Pilot Officer Billy Fiske, and Flight Lieutenant Bob Oxspring certainly feature, even the fighter pilots studied are generally lesser known or overlooked figures. The author also poignantly highlights the impacts of these losses on their families. Where appropriate he discusses the recovery and burial of the bodies, and the short and long term effects on their families.
Overall, the author has used an impressive range of material to bring these stories to life. Interviews with comrades and families, contemporary squadron records and combat reports, and many other sources are all brought together to form a rounded story of the battle. This 370-page volume is also well illustrated, indexed and includes a useful and comprehensive glossary. This book would be an interesting addition to any library.
A FRESH ANGLE ON THE BATTLE, EXPLORING THE LESS GLORIOUS, GRIM REALITY
Anyone familiar with Shire Publications will know what to expect from this slim volume.
is the usual tightly focussed, well-illustrated work, which benefits from the strong writing skills of its author.
Stuart Hadaway is able to provide a thumbnail sketch of the most important elements of airfield history, using the limited space available to great effect. The reader is quickly taken from the genesis of the air base, during World War I, through the inter-war modifications and on into World War II. We are treated to some highly effective first-hand testimony, well chosen to illustrate a facet of RAF life that is sometimes overlooked in popular histories.
This is never more true than in the story told by a pilot during an attack on an airfield. Where most histories would focus on the exploits of the British fighters while in the air, this pilot paints a harrowing picture of life on the ground, as he waits for his fighter to be refuelled and rearmed by the tireless ground crews – all while under severe attack from German planes, “Not one of those magnificent men faltered for a moment in their tasks,” Sergeant Iain Hutchinson, of No. 54 Squadron, recalled. “I was frankly relieved to be taking off again.”
The only possible word of complaint, common with all of the Shire Publications titles, is that it is over too soon. It certainly whets the appetite for more and in this respect, the list of suggested further reading is very welcome.
AN EXCELLENT INTRODUCTION TO AN OFTEN-OVERLOOKED SUBJECT
British Airfields of the Second World War
Stells the story of Peter Stuyckes, a 19-year-old pilot officer, during one week of his service in a fictional Fighter Command station in 1940. The author, Trever Dudley-smith, was himself an RAF flight engineer and was most famous for his 1964 novel which was made into two Hollywood films. Due for publication on 10 September, is the latest in IWM’S Wartime Classics series.
This issue, one lucky History of War reader will win a set of eight novels from the series, including
Take a look below for the other titles in the set, as well as how you can enter today!
A candid account of SOE operations in occupied Europe from the renowned Shakespearean actor, director and film star based on his experiences as a Special Operations Executive behind enemy lines in Albania.
Airborne. quadron Airborne
Of The Phoenix